 | Water scarcity source ref: ebookwas.html |
 |  | Part 5 |
|
|
Part 5
Chapter 21: Problems,Findings, and Issues
|
PART V-
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||
The direct impacts on agriculture of a reduction or shift in water availability are believed to include principally:
1. Reduction in cropped acreage, or
2. Change in cropping pattern and practices, and/or
3. Relocation of irrigation to another area.
These impacts, then, are felt in agriculture, water quantity and quality, land quality, community well-being, social institutions, and commodity flows at local, national, and international levels. In certain instances the effects have a feedback relationship to local conditions. For example, a change in irrigation field practices may alter the economic efficiency of farm operation, and the quantity and quality of water available to other farmers. Most effects have significance to the farmers, and some are important for the immediate community, for a distant urban center, for the state or region, or for the nation.
Insofar as these consequences are believed to be deleterious and would not be remedied readily over time by readjustments in the current markets for water, land or labor, there may be opportunities to reduce, buffer, or compensate for them by executive, legislative or judicial actions. Each of these actions needs appraisal in order to judge how efficient, equitable, and practicable it may be.
The primary challenge, then, is to identify, assess, and understand the nature of these multiple and diverse linkages among
- 475 -
the principal components as defined. But several dimensions need to be specified in considering the range of papers and comments embodied in this volume.
What is the Semiarid West?
A variety of delimitations are implied: all the 17 western states; the semiarid and arid portions of those states; the closed basins and river basins rising in those states. The strict connotation of "arid" in the traditional climatological sense is not used. Probably the basin criterion is the one used by most of the authors, including humid and subhumid portions of drainage areas of the western states. While special attention is given by a number of authors to arid and semiarid areas, the needs for municipal and industrial water in more humid areas also are reviewed.
But there is need to specify what area each author describes: a local area, a basin, a state, parts of several states, or the whole West? Generalizations that apply to one may not apply to another, and some of the apparent disagreement among authors springs from the varying connotations. Areas of the High Plains where dry farming is an alternative to irrigation farming are not to be confused with an Arizona desert basin where irrigation is essential to any crop growth. It is dangerous to speak of the semiarid West as though it were homogeneous for any parameter, and certainly not for water sources. The geographic realities need to be recognized.
What Is Water Supply?
Most of the chapters deal with water from any source. However, a few concentrate on groundwater and, particularly, aquifers subject to relatively rapid depletion. The distinction between surface and nonrechargeable ground sources is fundamental in some places and not in others. In most instances it is important to recognize the differences among (1) surface water, (2) rechargeable groundwater, and (3) nonrechargeable groundwater.
Taking account of both aridity and water source, and drawing on the picture presented in Chapter 1, it is helpful to think of the semiarid West as containing at least six major types of land shown in Figure 21.1. For this purpose the surface sources are combined with rechargeable ground sources (A, B and C) because they have the common characteristic of being nonexhaustable under proper management, and because most areas with surface supply provide actual or potential opportunities for conjunctive use with ground supplies.
- 476 -
[Full Size]
Figure 21.1
Effects of Limited Water on Irrigated Agriculture
- 477 -
With only a few notable exceptions, the waters of the western states are drawn from basins of types A, B and C, and mostly from basins having all three types. The arid nonrechargeable aquifers of type D, such as those in southern Arizona, are relatively limited in extent, and in other places, such as central Arizona, are served also with surface supplies. The semiarid nonrechargeable aquifers of type E are most extensive, principally the Ogallala formation. Inasmuch as nonrechargeable aquifers are associated with surface supply in many humid areas, the type F sources are relatively unimportant in setting limits for supply. Unless we speak about the political or economic systems of the 17 states as a whole, it may be profoundly misleading to refer to the water supply of the entire area.
What Is the Time Horizon?
Ranging from long-term climatic swings to short-term community dislocation problems, different time horizons are used. They need not be uniform, and clearly the decades or centuries inherent in estimates of precipitation are inappropriate in considering social disruption. It is important, nevertheless, to note how each author specifies the period used.
Some of the current popular discussion of western water problems treats the situation as one of impending crisis. In contrast, the chapters in this volume do not paint a picture of imminent disaster. Part of the apparent difference in viewpoint is to be traced to interpretation of the evidence as will be noted later, part to use of widely ranging time horizons, and part to the weight placed on the probability of possibly perturbing events.
When the evidence of long-term trends in precipitation and temperature is marshalled in Chapter 1, it is apparent that shifts should be expected to take place gradually over decades or centuries. Depletion of the Ogallala is seen as proceeding for three to four decades in some areas of Texas, and over centuries in Nebraska. Movements of farm population to the cities and reductions in farm labor per unit of product have been continuing at a relatively constant rate. The estimates of time required for a small rural community to respond to a change in farm income flows are in periods of five to ten years. Prices for crops are seen as partly responsive to a slowly growing national demand. The buildup of salts in mismanaged soils may reach serious proportions in a few years, or only over decades, depending on local soil and drainage. The time required to complete a new river impoundment once preliminary planning has begun is of the order of fifteen to twenty years. A large number of the
- 478 -
components in the problem are subject to slow change over long periods.
On the other hand, a few of the components might shift in a matter of a few years. These include a drought of severity unseen in 200 years, a sudden increase in energy prices affecting pumping costs, a drastic shift in foreign markets for farm products, the introduction of a new irrigation technology, and judicial recognition of reserved Indian water rights. Other sharp discontinuities in social or physical trends will come to mind. Any one or several of these events in combination could alter the views of the future prevailing in these papers.
Mark Twain liked to point out that reasonable people could differ either because they use the same words to describe different things or different words to describe the same things. Much of the disagreement about western water may be attributed to the differing meanings attached to the semiarid West and to the future.
Convergence and Divergence
Having noted these cautions as to generalizations concerning the semiarid West and its future, we may ask wherein the evidence and judgments expressed in this volume converge or diverge. The general definition of the problem as presented above goes largely unchallenged. It appears to be sufficiently comprehensive to permit discussion of all the evidence deemed relevant.
Insofar as there appears to be convergence of views they may be stated as propositions. Insofar as divergence of view arises they may be stated as questions.
Consensus
Let us put down in short-hand fashion a few of the major propositions that seem to be supported so far.
Whether there is anthropogenic or natural climate change beyond the great swings that are part of the dendrochronology record, it is likely to be in the direction of warmer, dryer conditions with possibly greater variability. More humid climatic conditions are not anticipated in appraising the western scene.
There are few promising opportunities to increase available water by nonconventional means such as cloud seeding and desalting. No technological breakthroughs now appear to be in the wings.
- 479 -
Opportunities for additional storage may be economic in a few areas, but those for trans-basin diversions are severely limited, both politically and economically. The day of large water-storage projects is seen as waning.
Groundwater supply is moving toward exhaustion in several large aquifers and more small ones at radically different rates, ranging from decades to centuries. But the cost of pumping, exacerbated by mounting energy prices, may halt exploitation before the supplies are depleted.
Reallocation of increasingly costly water from agriculture to municipal and industrial (including energy) uses is going forward through transfer of water rights in some areas. Municipalities are acquiring rights in connection with annexations and as part of new storage development. Industries are purchasing rights from farmers.
Competition between irrigation and other uses increases rapidly in some areas, and to that extent "shortages" in supply may result for farmlands, although farmers may gain income from sales or leases of water.
Salinization is a continuing problem on a substantial but unspecified proportion of irrigated land where drainage is inadequate or water application practices are unsuitable. Methods of managing salt in the soil and of cultivating plants with greater salt tolerance are advancing.
Some municipal and many industrial users are decreasing their withdrawal per capita or per production unit, and are likely to continue to do so.
The opportunities for using water more efficiently in agriculture in connection with changes in crop patterns and tillage practices are large and numerous, but their economic feasibility is in doubt in many areas. Improvement in production efficiency per unit of water withdrawn does not necessarily free water for other uses.
Instream uses for maintenance of aquatic ecosystems are likely to suffer in quality from reduced flows and from more intensive cropping.
Rapid abandonment of irrigated land may lead to wind erosion unless conservation measures are taken.
Rural communities are likely to dwindle where irrigation activity is reduced, but in any event will probably suffer from migration to the city.
More distant urban centers will not experience a measurable effect from decline in irrigation.
- 480 -
The national economy is not expected to experience dislocations as a result of the likely reductions in irrigated acreage or in cropping patterns.
Doubts and Disagreements
The points on which there is not plain consensus are harder to state. The more controversial ones are presented here as questions. In each case there is doubt either as to the methods or data used, or as to the conclusions reached.
What is the rate at which pumping for irrigation in specific areas would become uneconomic at current (or future) energy and crop prices? It is recognized that changes in these prices could overshadow depletion as a factor in land abandonment.
What factors affect the farmers' decisions to stop pumping and then either move away or change cropping patterns? This is especially relevant in the High Plains where agriculture has moved from dry farming to irrigation and is beginning to revert very slowly.
What proportion of water would be saved if all economically feasible conservation measures were applied? These may affect production efficiency but may reduce seepage losses and return flows.
What factors affect farmers' decisions to adopt conservation measures in the face of limited supplies and of prevailing water rights systems?
Can agricultural water allocations be expected to move spatially so as to substitute high-value for low-value crops and in response to comparative advantages? It is easy to suggest that water should be applied where it will yield the largest net returns, but difficult to achieve this under legal and ownership constraints.
Can land be expected to substitute for water as water prices increase?
Is there social justification for attempting to stem or reverse the trends in "dying communities" where irrigation abandonment accelerates the outward flow of people and reduces net income, leading to local trauma?
Is there need to institute some kind of regional market for water to expedite transfers? Or is the present system working well enough?
As agricultural interests occupy a relatively smaller share of western population and income, will their political power wane?
What is likely to be the effect of the drive for assertion of federal reserved rights? Would this restrict reallocations?
- 481 -
What would be the consequences of further recognition of Indian water rights? Some observers think this would change the picture radically.
To what extent would a program for selected removal of phreatophytes as a means of saving water be consistent with the maintenance of aquatic or riparian ecosystems?
Does any state now have sufficient statutory authority and executive capability to facilitate a flexible management of water development and water reallocations to serve the public interest?
Is the presently decreasing role of the federal government in water development likely to promote or retard the economic and political adjustments necessary to cope with reduced water?
Policies and Programs
Although the appropriate direction of existing and possible new public policies is touched upon at a number of points, there is little clear agreement as to their desirability and priority. No single coherent program for action emerges.
A few lines of action are stressed. Water rights should be refined and streamlined so that it will be practicable to transfer water to other users, where questions of the identity and quantity of the right and of the power to transfer are impediments. Statutes affecting groundwater depletion and pollution are regarded as especially archaic, and changes in them are in progress. Quite aside from the quantification of property rights, the reserved public and Indian rights need to be clarified.
The data base on several fundamental parameters needs improvement: extent of irrigated land and salination rates are examples. Research is called for on a number of the topics noted as in doubt or disagreement. But some of the differences are judgmental and will be resolved only in the political arena as positions harden on issues of policy. The ambiguity and indecision characterizing much of the current federal government policy does not advance the resolution of these questions.
Underlying Issues
Underlying much of the analytical discussion are five issues that occur in varying degrees of severity among the basins of the semiarid West. They are not addressed explicitly in most of the papers, but are approached implicitly or tangentially at many points. These are the questions of territorial identity, uncertainty, market and public action, emphasis on development or
- 482 -
management for conservation, and the roles of crisis and education.
Throughout the semiarid West the disposition is strong to claim and develop water within the political jurisdictions of its origin. Officers of the state of Montana thinking about the waters of the Missouri Basin want the state to "use it or lose it." Representatives of the lower Missouri Basin states object to South Dakota diverting slurry water from the river even temporarily, because of rights they feel they have to its flow. Citizens of Colorado press to utilize waters of the Arkansas, Colorado, and Platte rivers to the full limit of their rights, so that it will not be diverted by downstream users. New Mexico doesn't want El Paso to transport groundwater across its border, nor does Nebraska approve of a farmer pumping from a Nebraska well to a Colorado field. Northern Californians seek to foreclose any further movement of water to the south. These upstream-downstream and trans-basin contentions occur between states and within states, and their existence colors any discussion of water transfer or water use efficiency. These political realities constrain the physical and economic situations, and in some instances they render moot calculations of economic efficiency.
With water, as with most resource management, uncertainty has a large influence upon the mode of technical analysis and the choice of suitable public policy. It reminds us that the course of events could proceed quite differently than projections or scenarios anticipate. That recognition leads people to espouse prudent "minimax" strategies. Consider some of the events that might change the outlook for water in the western states within a short period of time. A very severe drought-as severe as in the 13th century-might persist for a dozen years: that could alter the perception of water availability. An announcement by internationally recognized scientific authorities that we were beginning a period of long-term climate change could trigger a frenetic reexamination of what constitutes a reliable limited supply: this might come before the end of the 1980s, or 2000 might find us still engaged in speculation. A marked decline in foreign markets for agricultural produce could alter the competitive position of western farmers. A continued drastic tilt of the national budget toward unproductive defense expenditures could raise the cost of capital and induce economic distress greater than anything experienced since the 1930s.
Any one of these or other events not appearing in the conventional projections could turn around the views of the water
- 483 -
future prevailing in this volume. Uneasiness about such trends lends support to the caution of some water administrators and users that additional storage should be provided in the near future to buffer possible later disruptions. In a broader sense it speaks for assuring a large latitude of flexibility in institutional arrangements so that they may be modified in the future as physical and social conditions change.
A third issue relates to the weight given to market mechanisms in contrast to government regulation in response to community needs. We shall never have this fully resolved. Several chapters in this volume support a market allocation of water rights, subject in varying ways to consideration of the effects of private water use on land use, aquatic ecosystems, soil productivity, and the rights of others. The trend is toward greater reliance on the marketplace, but there is doubt as to its sensitivity to these effects, and as to its practicability in view of entrenched legal and administrative institutions and the societies they reflect.
A fourth issue that applies to the country as a whole as well as other nations, but particularly to the semiarid West, is represented in the shifting of public emphasis from water development to water management for conservation. The federal and state agencies array themselves at different points along the spectrum, with the trend toward conservation. No big new projects are anticipated. No primarily federal financing is expected. In contrast to debates about Congressional appropriations and federal-state administrative roles, the question becomes how more sophisticated management, with only partial emphasis on development, at the level of substate areas may achieve efficient and equitable water use.
The final issue concerns the speed and timing of action to bring about the revisions in policies and programs noted above as desirable. An observer would have a hard job on the basis of evidence in this volume asserting that there is a real and emerging water crisis in the semiarid West. It appears possible to satisfy other emerging needs and still preserve a viable irrigation agriculture serving the region and the nation. Skeptics nevertheless ask whether there will be adequate action along the lines seen as most needed and suitable at the present time unless a crisis situation is foreseen. We are, they say, a short-sighted, greedy society that will respond only to the threat of impending disaster. Until that is perceived as imminent, we will progressively worsen our situation without having made the kinds of adjustments in
- 484 -
systems of incentives, regulations, and educational and technical assistance to deal with the problems emerging today.
This is a special challenge to those sharing the motivating concern of this volume. In modifying its methods of coping with resource scarcity, our society has not always responded solely to crisis. Droughts and floods can trigger rapid change, but society also sometimes responds to sane judgments slowly built up through consensus and regional conflict as to investment, administrative, and research priorities. The evidence suggests a problem that could be serious in local areas in terms of the livelihood, sense of identity, and direction of local groups, and it points up the need for continuing readjustment of institutions and policies to facilitate socially beneficial reallocation of supplies.
Analysts see a worsening of conditions if appropriate actions are not taken. For the moment, we cannot rely upon a cry of crisis to make it easier for localities to work together, to reallocate rights, to speed up conservation measures, and to take other actions that seem to be indicated. Thereby, the response is more difficult than would be the case if disaster were looming just over the horizon. It calls for persistence, patience, and long-time education supported by research and technical assistance. It requires a new rhetoric in appealing to those concerned. Reliance cannot be placed on the forecast of a great climate change or the early running out of reserves. Education, technical assistance, and supporting research need to be brought to bear on the resolution of subregional and local problems, and steps in that direction need sustained and imaginative support.
Unless our society continues to meet that challenge in a sober, careful way, we may expect worsening of the situation of irrigation agriculture in a few parts of the semiarid West.
Notes
NotesChapter 1- Physical Limitations of Water Resources1. N.C. Matalas, J.M. Landwehr and M.G. Wolman, Prediction in Water Management, in Scientific Basis of Water-Resources Management: Studies in Geophysics, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., 1982, pp. 118-127. [BACK] 2. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources, 1975-2000: The Second National Water Assessment, (Washington, D.C., GPO, 1978) Vol. 1, Summary, p. 86. [BACK] 3. C.W. Stockton and G.C. Jacoby, Jr., Long-Term Surface-Water Supply and Streamflow Trends in the Upper Colorado River Basin based on Tree-Ring Analysis, Lake Powell Res. Project Bulletin, No. 18, 1976, p. 70. [BACK] 4. W.B. Langbein, Dams, Reservoirs and Withdrawals for Water Supply-Historic Trends, Open-file Report 82-256, U.S. Geological Survey, 1982, p. 9. [BACK] 5. L.F. Konikow and J.D. Bredehoeft, "A Water Quality Model to Evaluate Water Management Practices in an Irrigated Stream-Aquifer System," in Salinity in Water Resources, J.E. Flack and C.W. Howe, editors (Boulder, Colorado: Merriman, 1974), pp. 36-59. [BACK] 6. A.F. Pillsbury, "The Salinity of Rivers," Scientific American, 1981, pp. 55-65. [BACK] 7. N.K. Whittlesey and K.C. Gibbs, "Energy and Irrigation in Washington," Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 3 (1978): 1, 1-9. [BACK] 1. H.C. Fritts, Tree Rings and Climate, London: Academic Press, 1976. [BACK] 1. H.C. Fritts, Tree Rings and Climate, London: Academic Press, 1976. [BACK] 2. G.A. Gordon, "Verification of Dendroclimatic Reconstructions," in Climate from Tree Rings, M.K. Hughes, P.M. Kelly, J.R. Pilcher, and V.C. LaMarche Jr., eds., (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 58-61. [BACK] 3. H.C. Fritts and G.A. Gordon, "Reconstructed Annual Precipitation for California," in Climate from Tree Rings, op. cit., pp. 185-91. [BACK] 4. H.C. Fritts, Reconstructing North American Climate from Tree Rings: A Diagnostic Analysis (London: Academic Press, in preparation). [BACK] 4. H.C. Fritts, Reconstructing North American Climate from Tree Rings: A Diagnostic Analysis (London: Academic Press, in preparation). [BACK] 5. D.M. Ludlum, Early American Winters: Vol. 1, 1604-1820 and Vol. 2, 1821-1870. (Boston: AMS, 1966). [BACK] 6. C.W. Stockton and D.M. Meko, "Drought Recurrence in the Great Plains as Reconstructed from Long-Term Tree-Ring Records," Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, in press, 1983. [BACK] 7. C.W. Stockton and W.R. Boggess, "Geohydrological Implications of Climate Change on Water Resource Development," prepared for the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1979. [BACK] 8. National Defense University, "Climate Change to the Year 2000-A Survey of Expert Opinion," Defense Documentation Center, Alexandria, Virginia, 1978. [BACK] Chapter 2- Legal-Institutional Limitations on Water Use1. For a history of U.S. irrigation, see Lawrence B. Lee, Reclaiming the American West (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio Press, 1980). [BACK] 2. See, generally, Michael C. Nelson, The Winters Doctrine: Seventy Years of Application of 'Reserved' Water Rights to Indian Reservations (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies, 1977). [BACK] 3. A fuller discussion of the material in this section can be found in Gary D. Weatherford and Gordon Jacoby, "Impact of Energy Development on the Law of the Colorado River," 15 Natural Resources Journal 171, 174-81 (January 1975). [BACK] 4. The material in this section is drawn selectively from Gary Weatherford (ed.) et al., Acquiring Water for Energy: Institutional Aspects (Littleton, CO: Water Resources Publications, 1982), pp. 29-42. [BACK] 5. The emergence of water markets in western irrigation states is analyzed by Lee Brown et al., "Water Reallocation, Market Proficiency, and Conflicting Social Values," in Gary Weatherford (ed.) et al., Water and Agriculture in the Western U.S.: Conservation, Reallocation and Markets (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), pp. 191-265. [BACK] 6. Persons whose income depends on a continuance of agricultural production-such as farm implement dealers, feed and fertilizer suppliers and farm laborers-normally have no involvement in a farmer's decision to sell his water rights and quit farming. Water markets therefore pose equity issues. See, generally, ibid. break [BACK] 7. Some of the material in this section is drawn from Gary Weatherford (ed.) et al., Acquiring Water for Energy: Institutional Aspects (Littleton, CO: Water Resources Publications, 1982), pp. 97-113. [BACK] 8. For an interesting preview of rising pumping costs, see R. Schafer, "San Joaquin Valley Groundwater Pumping Costs," paper for conference of Association of California Water Agencies, November 1981, Pacific Grove, CA. [BACK] 9. Dean E. Mann, "Political Incentives in U.S. Water Policy: Relationships between Distributive and Regulatory Politics," in What Government Does, eds. Matthew Holden, Jr. and Dennis L. Dresang, Volume I, Sage Yearbooks in Politics and Public Policy (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1975). [BACK] 10. Owen Stratton and Phillip Sirotkin, The Echo Park Controversy (University of Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1959). [BACK] 11. Dean Schooler and Helen Ingram, "Water Resource Management," in Public Studies Review, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Center for Public Affairs, November 1981). [BACK] 12. U.S. v. New Mexico, 438 U.S. 699 (1978). [BACK] 13. California v. U.S., 438 U.S. 645 (1978). [BACK] 14. Kenneth Rubin, "The Capacity of States to Manage Water Resources Given a Decreased Federal Role," prepared for the Symposium on Unified River Basin Management, Stage II, October 6, 1981. [BACK] 15. Mont. Code Ann., Sec. 51-4-5, Suppl, 1978. [BACK] 16. Henry P. Caulfield, Jr., "U.S. Water Resources Policy: Past, Present and Future," prepared for the Western Political Science Association Annual Meeting, San Diego, California, March 25, 1982. 17. Ibid. [BACK] 16. Henry P. Caulfield, Jr., "U.S. Water Resources Policy: Past, Present and Future," prepared for the Western Political Science Association Annual Meeting, San Diego, California, March 25, 1982. 17. Ibid. [BACK] 18. Ariz. Rev. Stat., Sec. 45-513 (1980). [BACK] 19. Kenneth D. Frederick, "The Future Role of Western Irrigation," in The Southwestern Rev. of Management and Economics 19 (Spring 1981). 20. Ibid. [BACK] 19. Kenneth D. Frederick, "The Future Role of Western Irrigation," in The Southwestern Rev. of Management and Economics 19 (Spring 1981). 20. Ibid. [BACK] 21. Helen Ingram, William E. Martin, and Nancy K. Laney, "A Willingness to Play: Analysis of Water Resources Development in Arizona," in Gary D. Weatherford (ed.) et al., Water and Agriculture in the Western U.S.: Conservation, Reallocation, and Markets (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982). [BACK] 22. Helen Ingram, Nancy Laney, and John R. McCain, A Policy Approach to Political Representation: Lessons from the Four-Corners States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press for Resources for the Future, 1980). [BACK] 23. Behavior Research Center, Consumer Division, Salt River Project Customer Attitude Survey (Report to Management), June 1977. [BACK] 24. Henry P. Caulfield, Jr., supra, note 16. [BACK] 25. Dale E. Pontius, "Groundwater Management in Arizona: A New Set of Rules," Arizona Bar Journal October 1980, pp. 28-52. [BACK] 26. See Sporhase v. State of Nebraska, No. 81-613, U.S. Supreme Court, decided July 2, 1982 (October Term, 1981); also, City of El Paso v. Reynolds, Civil No. 80-730-HB, U.S. Dist. Court, Dist. of New Mexico, pending. [BACK] 27. Henry P. Caulfield, supra, note 16. break [BACK] 1. Testimony of Wesley Steiner, Director of the Arizona Department of Water Resources, before the Special Master in Arizona v. California, September 19, 1980. [BACK] 2. Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe, 455 U.S. 130, 102 S.Ct. 894 (1982). break [BACK] 3. Town of Chino Valley v. City of Prescott, 131 Ariz. 78, 638 P.2d 1324 (1981); Cherry v. Steiner, CIV-81-719, July 21, 1982. [BACK] 4. Howard v. Perrin, 8 Ariz. 347, 76 P.460 (1904); Maricopa County Mun. Water Conservation Dist. No. 1 v. Southwest Cotton Co., 39 Ariz. 65, 4 P.2d 369 (1931), aff'd on rehearing, 39 Ariz. 367, 7 P.2d 254 (1932); Bristor v. Cheatham, 75 Ariz. 227, 255 P.2d 173 (1953); Jarvis v. State Land Dep't., 104 Ariz. 527, 456 P.2d 385 (1969); Jarvis v. State Land Dep't., 106 Ariz. 506, 479 P.2d 169 (1970); Neal v. Hunt, 11 Ariz. 307, 541 P.2d 559 (1975); Jarvis v. State Land Dep't., 113 Ariz. 230, 550 P.2d 227 (1976); Farmers Inv. Co. v. Bettwy, 133 Ariz. 520, 558 P.2d 14 (1976); Town of Chino Valley v. State Land Dep't., 119 Ariz. 243, 580 P.2d 704 (1978). [BACK] 5. Four minor corrections to specific statements of the paper are suggested. First, when the Central Arizona Project begins delivering water in three or four years, most of the use reductions in California will be municipal (estimated reduction in Metropolitan Water District diversions of Colorado River water is 55 percent), not irrigation. Second, though state water laws provide the fabric for allocation of most water, they do not, of course, affect allocation of water such as the Colorado River Lower Basin rights, which, under the Boulder Canyon Project Act, 43 U.S.C. §§ 617-617t (1928) and Arizona v. California, 373 U.S. 546, 575-90 (1963), are determined by the Secretary of Interior. Third, this writer disputes the historical accuracy of the statement that two dams on the Colorado River were defeated on both economic and environmental grounds-they were defeated on environmental grounds. Finally, in the section on State Laws of Surface Water, it might be useful to note the extent to which "instream uses" have been recognized. The concept was dealt a significant set-back in U.S. v. New Mexico, 438 U.S. 696, 98 S.Ct. 3012 (1978). [BACK] 6. For a discussion of the political forces that shaped the Arizona Act, Ariz. Rev. State. Ann. §§ 45-401 to 636 (Supp. 1981-82), see Kyl, "The 1980 Arizona Groundwater Management Act: From Inception to Current Constitutional Challenge," 53 Colorado Law Review, 471 (1982). [BACK] Chapter 3- Competition for Water1. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources, 1975-2000: The Second National Water Assessment (Washington, D.C., GPO, 1978), Vol. 1, Summary, p. 18. [BACK] 2. Calculated from data in the following U.S. Geological Survey circulars: 1950 data-Kenneth A. MacKichan, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1950, Circular 115 (Washington, D.C., May 1951); 1960 data-Kenneth A. MacKichan and J.C. Kammerer, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1960, Circular 456 (Washington, D.C., 1961); 1970 data-C. Richard Murray and E. Bodette Reeves, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1970, Circular 676 (Washington, D.C., 1974). The 1980 data are based on preliminary copies (provided by Ken Reid, U.S.G.S. hydrologist) of Tables 7 and 10 of the forthcoming U.S. Geological Survey Circular on "Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1980." The references are to water withdrawals (the amount of water taken from a surface or groundwater source for offstream use) rather than consumption (the portion of the water withdrawn which is not returned to a surface or groundwater source) since consumption data are not available for 1950. Subsequent references to water use will be limited to periods since 1960 and will focus on water consumption. [BACK] 3. The range of estimates of irrigated acreage is wide. The data are examined critically in Kenneth D. Frederick, Water for Western Agriculture (Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future, 1982), Appendix II-A. Fifty million acres is a reasonable estimate of irrigated acreage in the seventeen western states in the late 1970s. [BACK] 4. Calculated from data in the U.S. Geological Survey circulars on the estimated use of water in the United States. [BACK] 5. Kenneth D. Frederick, Water for Western Agriculture (Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future, 1982), pp. 71-72. break [BACK] 6. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources 1975-2000, Vol. 3, Appendix I, p. 8. [BACK] 7. The Assessment data are for water resource regions and subregions. The data relating to water use and the underlying socioeconomic factors have been converted to state boundaries in Oak Ridge National Laboratory, State Water Use and Socioeconomic Data Related to the Second National Water Assessment, prepared for the U.S. Water Resources Council (Oak Ridge, Tenn., 1980). [BACK] 8. Aerospace Corporation, Water Related Constraints on Energy Production, Aerospace Report No. ATR-78(9409)-1 (Germantown, Md., Aerospace Corporation, June 1978). [BACK] 9. The seven subregions are Lahontan-South (1807) and Southern California (1806) in the California Region, Humboldt-Tonopah Desert (1603) and Central Lahontan (1604) in the Great Basin Region, Middle Rio Grande (1302) in the Rio Grande Region, and Brazos (1203) and Colorado (1204) in the Texas Gulf Region. [BACK] 10. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources: The Second National Water Assessment, Vol. 3, Appendix 1, Tables 1-4. [BACK] 11. The nine subregions are Western Dakotas (1005), Middle Missouri (1009), and Lower Missouri (1011) of the Missouri Region, Upper White (1101), Yellowstone (1004), North and South Platte (1007) of the Arkansas-White-Red Region, Sabine-Neches (1201) and Nueces-Texas Coastal (1205) of the Texas-Gulf Region, and Green-White-Yampa (1401) of the Upper Colorado Region. [BACK] 12. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources 1975-2000, Vol. 3, Appendix 1, p. 1. [BACK] 13. U.S. Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, D.C., GPO, 1980). [BACK] 14. For a detailed examination of the irrigation data problems, see Frederick, Water for Western Agriculture, Appendix 2-A. [BACK] 15. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, "Basic Statistics-1977 National Resources Inventory (NRI)," revised February 1980, in mimeograph. [BACK] 16. This material is adapted from Allen V. Kneese and F. Lee Brown, The Southwest Region Under Stress: National Resource Development Issues in a Regional Setting (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press for Resources for the Future, 1981). The original paper reporting the analysis is Thomas Maddock III and N. C. Matalas, "The Potential Impacts of Energy Development on Water Resources in the Yampa River Basin" in Walter O. Spofford, Jr., Alfred L. Parker, and Allen V. Kneese, eds., Energy Development in the Southwest: Problems of Water, Fish, and Wildlife in the Upper Colorado River Basin (Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future, 1980). [BACK] 17. These conclusions draw on research by the authors reported in ibid., and Frederick, Water for Western Agriculture, as well as the analysis in this paper. [BACK] 18. High Plains Associates, Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study (a report to the U.S. Department of Commerce and the High Plains Study Council, March 1982), pp. A-17-24. break [BACK] 1. David E. Burmaster, "The New Pollution-Groundwater Contamination," Environment, Vol. 24, March 1982, pp. 6-36. break [BACK] Chapter 4- Developing New Water Supplies1. William G. Dunn, "Summary of Reports on Possible Water Import Plans from Canada," Woodside, California, June 1980 (unpublished paper). Also, "The Rocky Mountain Plan," ASCE National Convention, Dallas, Texas, April 27, 1977. [BACK] 2. Roland P. Kelly, NAWAPA Plan Can Work, Energy Report, National Energy Research and Information Institute, La Verne, California, June/July 1982. [BACK] 3. Lewis Gordy Smith, Western States Water Augmentation Concept, Federation of Rocky Mountain States, Inc., Denver, Colorado, Monograph, 1967. [BACK] 4. Joel Schwarz, "California Lifeline-A History of the State Water Project," Aqueduct, Vol. 48:2, Sacramento, California, 1982. [BACK] 5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Water Transfer Elements of High Plains - Ogallala Aquifer Study, Dallas, Texas, January 1982. [BACK] 6. Mississippi River Commission, West Texas and Eastern New Mexico Water Impact Study, Vicksburg, Miss., October 1973. break [BACK] 7. Homer E. Newell, A Recommended National Program in Weather Modification, Federal Council for Science and Technology, Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976. [BACK] Chapter 5- Increasing Efficiency of Nonagricultural Water Use1. H.J. Graeser, "Water Reuse: Resource of the Future," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 66, No. 10 (October 1974), pp. 575-578. [BACK] 2. J.G. Milliken and G.C. Taylor, Metropolitan Water Management, Water Resources Monograph Series #6, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 1981, p. 180. [BACK] 3. J.N. English, E.R. Bennett, and K.D. Linstedt, "Research Required to Establish Confidence in the Potable Reuse of Wastewater," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 69, No. 3 (March 1977), pp. 131-136. [BACK] 4. C.J. Schmidt, I. Rugelman, and E.V. Clements III, "Municipal Reuse in the U.S.," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 47, No. 9 (September 1975), pp. 2229-2245. [BACK] 5. W.J. Phillips, "The Direct Reuse of Reclaimed Wastewater: Pros, Cons and Alternatives," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 66, No. 4 (April 1974), pp. 231-237. [BACK] 6. A.W. Reinhardt, D.P. Spath, and W.F. Jopling, "Organics, Water and Health: A Reuse Problem," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 67, No. 9 (September 1975), pp. 477-480. [BACK] 7. A.D. Pagorski, "Is the Public Ready for Recycled Water?" Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 121, No. 6 (June 1974), p. 108. [BACK] 8. W.H. Bruvold, and H.J. Ongerth, "Public Use and Evaluation of Reclaimed Water," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 66, No. 5 (May 1974), pp. 294-297. break [BACK] 9. R.L. Carley, "Wastewater Reuse and Public Opinion," Master of Science thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1972, 121 pages. [BACK] 10. Gallup Poll, "Water Quality and Public Opinion," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 67, No. 8 (August 1973), pp. 513-519. [BACK] 11. J.H. Sims, and D.D. Baumann, "Renovated Waste Water: The Question of Public Acceptance." Water Resources Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, p. 659. [BACK] 12. J.J. Greenberg, "Public Receptivity Toward Water Conservation in Northern Colorado Communities," Master of Science thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1981, 127 pages. [BACK] 13. J.R. Bailey, R.J. Benoit, J.L. Donson, J.M. Robb, and H. Wallman, A Study of Flow Reduction and Treatment of Waste Water from Households, Cincinnati, Ohio, December 1969. U.S. Government Printing Office, NTIS PB 197 599. [BACK] 14. K. Ligman, N. Huzler, and W.C. Boyler, "Household Wastewater Characterization," Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 100, No. EE1 (February 1974), p. 201. [BACK] 15. M. Milne, Residential Water Conservation, Report No. 35, Water Resources Center, University of California at Davis, CA, 1976. [BACK] 16. E.R. McLaughlin, "A Recycle System for Conservation of Water in Residences," Proceedings, Conference on Water Conservation and Sewage Flow Reduction with Water Saving Devices, Pennsylvania State University, PB 250 999, OWRT, 1975, pp. 133-141. [BACK] 17. Bailey, op. cit. [BACK] 18. S. Cohen and H. Wallman, Demonstration of Waste Flow Reduction from Households, Environmental Protection Agency, 670/2-74-071 (September 1974), Cincinnati, Ohio. [BACK] 19. P.D. Haney and C.L. Hamann, "Dual Water Systems," Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 57, No. 9 (1976), p. 1073. [BACK] 20. A.K. Deb and M.J. Ives, "Dual Water Supply," Paper presented at Second Annual Conference on Research, Development, and Design, Environmental Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Gainesville, Florida, July 21-23, 1975. [BACK] 21. J.R. DeLapp, "Water Reuse with a Dual Distribution System," Master of Science thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 1973. [BACK] 22. National Water Commission, Water Policies for the Future, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., June 1973. [BACK] 23. J.E. Flack, Urban Water Conservation, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 1982, 99 pages. [BACK] 15. M. Milne, Residential Water Conservation, Report No. 35, Water Resources Center, University of California at Davis, CA, 1976. [BACK] 24. C.W. Howe and F.P. Linaweaver, Jr., "The Impact of Price on Residential Water Demand and Its Relation to System Design and Price Structure," Water Resources Research, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1967), p. 13. [BACK] 25. D.R.J. Burns, J.H. Gerstle, O.J. Roussos, M.K. Whitaker, and R. Wemple, "The Effect of Price on Residential Water Demand," Econ. 691/CE539, University of Colorado (Fall Semester 1975), typewritten. [BACK] 26. S.H. Hanke and A. Mehrz, "The Relationship Between Water Use Restrictions and Water Use," Water Supply and Management, Vol. 2 (Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 001-007. break [BACK] Chapter 6- Coping with Salinity1. Jewell Meyer, Extension Specialist, UC Riverside, estimates that 800,000 acre-feet/yr out of a total of 3,100,000 acre-feet of sewage plant effluent currently is reused in California. [BACK] 2. I. Szabolcs, European Solonetz Soils and their Reclamation, Akademia Kiado, Budapest, 1971. [BACK] 3. J. Shalhevet and J. Kamburov, Irrigation and Salinity: A WorldWide Survey, Int'l Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 1976. [BACK] 4. The estimates that are repeatedly found in the literature can almost always be traced to an estimate made many years ago at this Laboratory; it was based on an informal inquiry among colleagues. break [BACK] 5. M.T. Kaddah and J.D. Rhoades, "Salt and Water Balance in Imperial Valley, California," Soil. Sci. Soc. Amer. J, 1976, 40:93-100. [BACK] 6. E.V. Maas and G.J. Hoffman, "Crop Salt Tolerance-Current Assessment," J. Irrig. and Drainage Div., ASCE, 1977, 103(IR2):115-134. [BACK] 7. J. van Schifgaarde, "The Wellton-Mohawk Dilemma," Int'l J. of Water Supply and Mgmt., 1982, 6:115-127. [BACK] 8. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, "Saline Water Use and Disposal Opportunities," Special Report, Colorado River Water Quality Improvement Program, 1981. [BACK] 9. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, "Palo Verde Irrigation District Unit and Colorado River Indian Reservation Unit-Status Report (Preliminary)," Colorado River Water Quality Improvement Program, 1978. [BACK] 10. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, "Stage One Development-Grand Valley Unit," Special Report, Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Project, 1979. [BACK] 11. Alan P. Kleinman and F. Bruce Brown, "Colorado River Salinity: Economic Impacts on Agriculture, Municipal, and Industrial Users," Water and Power Resources Service, Denver, Colorado, 1980. [BACK] 12. J.D. Rhoades, J.D. Oster, R.D. Ingvalsen, J.M. Tucker, and M. Clark, "Minimizing the Salt Burdens of Irrigation Drainage Waters," J. Environ. Qual., 1974, 3:311-316; J. van Schilfgaarde, L. Bernstein, J.D. Rhoades, and S.L. Rawlins, "Irrigation Management for Salt Control," J. Irrig. and Drainage Div., ASCE, 1974, 100(IR3):321-338. [BACK] 13. J.D. Rhoades, and D.L. Suarez, "Reducing Water Quality Degradation Through Minimized Leaching Management," Agric. Water Manage., 1977, 1(2):127-142. [BACK] 14. D.L. Suarez and M.Th. van Genuchten, "Leaching and Water-type Effects on Groundwater Quality," J. Irrig. and Drainage Div., ASCE, 1977, 107(IR1):35-52. [BACK] 15. W.A. Jury, H. Frenkel, D. Devitt, and L.H. Stolzy, "Transient Changes in the Soil-water System from Irrigation with Saline Water: II. Analysis of Experimental Data," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J., 1978, 42:585-590. [BACK] 16. D. Yaron, E. Bresler, and H. Bielorai, "A Model for Optimal Irrigation Scheduling with Saline Water," Water Resour. Res., 1980, 16:257-262. [BACK] 17. Rhoades and Suarez, 1977, op. cit. (note 13.) [BACK] 18. J.D. Rhoades, "Salinity Management and Monitoring," Proc., 12th Biennial Conf. on Ground Water, Sacramento, California, Sept. 1979. Water Resources Center #45:73-87; J.D. Rhoades and D.L. Corwin, "Determining Soil Electrical Conductivity-Depth Relations Using an Inductive Electromagnetic Soil Conductivity Meter," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J., 1981, 45:255-260. [BACK] 19. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, California Department of Water Resources, and California State Water Resources Control Board, "Agricultural Drainage and Salt Management in the San Joaquin Valley," San Joaquin Valley Interagency Drainage Program, Final Report, 1979. [BACK] 20. J.D. Rhoades, "Potential for Using Saline Agricultural Drainage Waters for Irrigation," Proc., Water Mgmt. for Irrigation and Drainage, ASCE, Reno, Nevada, July 1977, pp. 85-116. [BACK] 21. H. Boyko, "Saltwater Agriculture," Scientific American, 1967, 26(3):89-96; E. Epstein and J.D. Norlyn, "Seawater-based Crop Production: A Feasibility Study," Science, 1977, 197:249-251. break [BACK] 22. M.B. Bessler, "The Use of Saline Water for Irrigation in the U.S.S.R.," Final Report-U.S.-U.S.S.R. Joint Commission on Scientific and Technical Cooperation-Water Resources, 1979. See esp. p. 111. [BACK] 23. K.V. Paliwal, "Irrigation with Saline Water," Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 1972. [BACK] 24. Shalhevet and Kamburov, 1976, op. cit. (note 3.) [BACK] 25. R.D. Dhir, "Investigations into Use of Highly Saline Waters in an Arid Environment. I. Salinity and Alkali Hazard Conditions in Soil under a Cyclic Management System," Proc., Int'l Salinity Conf. on Managing Saline Water for Irrigation, Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, Texas, August 1976, pp. 608-609. [BACK] 26. Hardan, A. 1977, "Irrigation with Saline Water under Desert Conditions," Proc., Int'l Salinity Conf. on "Managing Saline Water for Irrigation," Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, Texas, August 1976, pp. 165-169. [BACK] 27. H. Frenkel and I. Shainberg, "Irrigation with Brackish Water: Chemical and Hydraulic Changes in Soils Irrigated with Brackish Water under Cotton Production," Irrigation with Brackish Water, Int'l Symp., Beer Sheva, Israel, The Negev University Press, 1975, pp. 175-183. [BACK] 28. R. Keren and I. Shainberg, "Irrigation with Sodic and Brackish Water and Its Effect on the Soil and on Cotton Fields," Hassade, 1978, 58:963-976. [BACK] 29. D.L. Miles, "Salinity in the Arkansas Valley of Colorado," InterAgency Agreement Report EPA-IAG-D4-0544, 1977. [BACK] 30. J. Moore and J.J. Hefner, "Irrigation with Saline Water in the Pecos Valley of West Texas," Proc., Int'l Salinity Conf. on Managing Saline Water for Irrigation, Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, Texas, August 1976, pp. 339-344. [BACK] 31. W.A. Jury, H. Frenkel, H. Fluhler, D. Devitt, and L.H. Stolzy, "Use of Saline Irrigation Waters and Minimal Leaching for Crop Production," Hilgardia, 1978, 46(5):169-192. [BACK] 32. A.D. Ayers, J.W. Brown, and C.H. Wadleigh, "Salt Tolerance of Barley and Wheat in Soil Plots Receiving Salinization Regimes," Agron J., 1952, 44:307-310. [BACK] 33. J.D. Rhoades, S.L. Rawlins, and C.J. Phene, "Irrigation of Cotton with Saline Drainage Water," ASCE Conf. and Exposition, Portland, Oregon, April 1980, Preprint 80-119. [BACK] 34. Joseph V. Hunter and Theresa Kotlayk, "Chemical and Biological Quality of Sewage Effluents," in Sopper, W.E. and L.T. Kardos (eds.), Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater through Forest and Cropland, Environmental Protection Agency EPA, 1974, 660/Z-74-003; Richard Thomas and James P. Law, "Properties of Waste Water," in Eliott, L.F. and J.F. Stevenson (eds.), Soils for Management of Organic Wastes and Wastewaters, American Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wisconsin, 1977, pp. 47-72. [BACK] 35. Robert S. Ayers and Kenneth K. Tanji, "Agronomic Aspects of Crop Production with Wastewater," in Proc. ASCE Specialty Conference Water Forum '81, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981, pp. 578-586. [BACK] 36. A. Wallace, P.M. Patel, W.L. Berry, and O.R. Lunt, "Reclaimed Sewage Water: A Hydroponic Growth Medium for Plants," Resource Recovery and Conservation, 1978, 3:191-194. break [BACK] 37. L. Kardos, T., C.E. Scarsbrook, and V.V. Volk, "Recycling Elements in Wastes through Soil-plant Systems," in Eliott, L.F. and J.F. Stevenson (eds.), Soils for Management of Organic Wastes and Wastewaters, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, 1977, pp. 301-324; Herman Bouwer, R.C. Rice, T.C. Lance, and R.G. Gilbert, "Rapid Infiltration Research at Flushing Meadows Project, Arizona," J. Water Poll., Control Fed., 1980, 52:2457-2470; A.R. Overman and W.G. Leseman, "Soil and Groundwater Changes under Land Treatment of Wastewater," Trans. ASAE, 1982, 25(2):381-387. [BACK] 38. A.D. Day, J.A. McFadyen, T.C. Tucker, and C.B. Cliff, "Effect of Municipal Wastewater on the Yield and Quality of Cotton," J. Environ. Qual., 1981, 10:47-49; A. Feign, H. Bielorai, Y. Dag, T. Kipnis, and M. Giskin, "The Nitrogen Factor in the Management of Effluent-Irrigated Soils," Soil Sci., 1981, 125:248-254; Boyle Engineering Corporation, "Evaluation of Agricultural Irrigation Projects using Reclaimed Water," Report for Office of Water Recycling, California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, California, 1981. [BACK] 39. Thomas and Law, 1972, op. cit. (note 34.) [BACK] 40. Ayers and Tanji, 1981, op. cit. (note 35.) [BACK] 41. Dwight Baier and Wilton B. Fryer, "Undesirable Plant Responses with Sewage Irrigation," J. Irrig. and Drainage Div., ASCE, 1973, 99(IR2):133-141; Herman Bouwer and R.L. Chaney, "Land Treatment of Wastewater," Adv. in Agron., 1974, 26:133-141; Feign et al., 1978, op. cit.; Day et al., 1981, op. cit. (note 38.) [BACK] 42. Feign et al., 1978, op. cit. (note 38.) [BACK] 43. Boyle Engineering Corporation, 1981, op. cit. (note 38.) [BACK] 44. Kurt L. Wassermann, James Crook and Robert P. Ghireli, "Health Aspects of Agricultural Irrigation with Reclaimed Municipal Wastewater," in Proc. ASCE Specialty Conference Water Forum '81. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981, pp. 587-595; J.C. Lance and Herman Bouwer, "Environmental Aspects of Irrigation with Sewage," in Proc. ASCE Specialty Conference Water Forum '81, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981, pp. 598-605; Perry L. McCarty, Paul V. Roberts and Edward J. Bouwer, "Transport and Fate of Organic Contaminants in Soils," in Proc. ASCE Specialty Conference Water Forum '81, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981, pp. 606-615; M. El-Nennah, T. El-Kobbia, A. Shehata and I. El-Gamal, "Effect of Irrigating Loamy Sand Soil by Sewage Effluents on its Content of Some Nutrients and Heavy Metals," Plant and Soil, 1982, 65:289-292. [BACK] 45. T.G. Bahr, "Saline Water Resources and Future Development in New Mexico," Proc., Int'l Conf. Salinity and Water Management Technology, Texas A&M Research Center, El Paso, Texas, Dec. 13-14, 1979. [BACK] 46. L.E. Francois, "Narrow Row Cotton under Saline Conditions" (submitted to Irrig. Sci. ), 1982. [BACK] 47. M.C. Shannon, "Genetics of Salt Tolerance: New Challenges," in Anthony San Pietro (ed.), Biosaline Research, Plenum Publ. Corp., 1982, pp. 261-282. [BACK] 48. Jefferies (1980) cites a production rate for Spartia marshes of 500 to 700 g m -2 yr -1 between 38 N and 28 N latitude. In contrast, Loomis et al. (1971) refer to net primary production rates for various glycophytes that are ten times those figures. See R.S. Loomis, W.A. Williams, and continue A.E. Hall, "Agricultural Productivity," Ann. Review Plant Phys., 1971, 22:431-468; R.L. Jefferies, "The Role of Organic Solutes in Osmoregulation in Halophytic Higher Plants," in D.W. Rains, R.C. Valentine, and Alexander Hollaender (eds.), Genetic Engineering of Osmoregulation, Plenum Press, New York, 1980, pp. 135-154. [BACK] 49. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation et al., 1979, op. cit. (note 19.) [BACK] 50. D.J. Dudek and G.L. Horner, USDA, ERS, "Integrated Physical-Economic Resources Analysis: A Case Study of the San Joaquin Valley," Final Report to EPA, Robert S. Kerr ERL, Ada, Oklahoma, 1981. [BACK] 1. Kenneth D. Frederick, "Irrigation and the Adequacy of Agricultural Land," in The Cropland Crisis, Myth or Reality?, P.R. Crosson, ed., (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). [BACK] 2. E.P. Glenn, M.R. Fontes, and N.P. Yensen, "Productivity of Halophytes Irrigated with Hypersaline Seawater in the Sonoran Desert," in Biosaline Research: A Look to the Future, A. San Pietro, ed., (New York, NY: Plenum Publishing Co., 1982). [BACK] 3. USDA Agricultural Statistics, 1977. [BACK] Chapter 7- Improving Crop Management1. Gordon Sloggett, "Prospects for Groundwater Irrigation: Declining Levels and Rising Energy Costs," U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report No. 478, 1981. [BACK] 2. Kenneth D. Frederick and James C. Harrison, "Western Irrigation: Its Past and Future Growth," Trends in U.S. Irrigation: Three Regional Studies, Pierre Crosson (ed.), United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1981. [BACK] 3. L.M. Hartman and Don Seastone, Water Transfers: Economic Efficiency and Alternative Institutions, published for Resources for the Future by The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore and London, 1970. [BACK] 4. Technical article 17807 of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas, 1983. Organizational and editorial suggestions of Ms. Kathy Kendall are gratefully acknowledged. [BACK] 5. Glenn S. Collins, "An Econometric Simulation Model for Evaluating Aggregate Economic Impacts of Technological Change on Major U.S. Field Crops," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1980. [BACK] 6. United States Department of Agriculture, "FEDS Budgets," Economics, Statistics and Cooperative Service, Department of Agricultural Economics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 1981. [BACK] 7. Bruce R. Beattie, Michael D. Frank, and Ronald D. Lacewell, "The Economic Value of Irrigation Water in the Western United States," Proceedings of Conference on Legal, Institutional and Social Aspects of Irrigational Drainage and Water Resources Planning and Management published by American Society of Civil Engineers, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, July 26-28, 1978. [BACK] 8. High Plains Associates, "Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study," final report to the United States Department of Commerce, 1982. [BACK] 9. Robert A. Young and S. L. Gray, "Economic Value of Water: Concepts and Empirical Estimates," Department of Economics PB-210356, Colorado State University, March 1972. [BACK] 10. Ronald D. Lacewell, J. Michael Sprott, and Bruce Beattie, "Value of Irrigation Water with Alternative Input Prices, Product Prices and Yield Levels by Region in Texas," Texas Water Resources Institute TR-58, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University, September 1974. [BACK] 11. Allan Highstreet, Carole Frank Nuckton, and Gerald L. Horner, "Agricultural Water Use and Costs in California," Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics Information Series 80-2, Division of Agricultural Sciences Bulletin 1896, University of California, July 1980. [BACK] 12. Interview with Dr. Charlie Coble, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, May 27, 1982. [BACK] 13. James W. Richardson, Tom P. Zacharias, Gary D. Condra, and Donald D. Stebbins, "Economic Analysis of Alternative Farm Sizes in El Paso County, Texas," Department of Agricultural Economics TR-79-1, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University, 1979. break [BACK] 14. P.S. George and G.A. King, "Consumer Demand for Food Commodities in the United States with Projection for 1980," Giannini Foundation Monograph No. 26, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1971. [BACK] 15. Ellis G. Knox and Arthur A. Theisen, "Feasibility of Introducing New Crops: Production-Marketing-Consumption Systems," Soil and Land Use Technology, Inc., final report submitted to the National Science Foundation, 1981. [BACK] 16. Kenneth E. Foster, William H. Brooks, Jean L. Mills, B. Kim Mortensen, and Jonathan G. Taylor, "Low Agricultural Water Use Scoping Study for the Four Corners Regional Committee," Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, April 1980. [BACK] 17. "Crop Residue Management Systems," Proceedings of a symposium in Houston, Texas, edited by W. R. Oschwald, published by American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, 1978. [BACK] 18. Foster, Brooks, Mills, Mortensen and Taylor, op. cit. [BACK] 19. B.W. Greb, "Reducing Drought Effects on Croplands in the West Central Great Plains," United States Department of Agriculture, Information Bulletin 410, 1979. [BACK] 20. Paul W. Unger and Allen F. Wiese, "Managing Irrigated Winter Wheat Residue for Water Storage and Subsequent Dryland Grain Sorghum Production," American Journal of the Soil Science Society, Vol. 43 (1979), pp. 582-588. [BACK] 21. W.M. Lewis, "No-Till Systems," North Carolina State University, Paper No. 134 of the journal series, Agricultural Extension Service, no date. [BACK] 22. William M. Lyle, Charles R. Fenster, Hayden Ferguson, and Charles W. Wendt, "Water Related Technologies for Sustained Agriculture in U.S. Arid and Semi-Arid Lands," preliminary draft of a report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, July 1982. [BACK] 23. C. Robert Taylor, Duane R. Reneau, and Richard Trimble, "Economics of Conservation Tillage Systems," published in Conservation Tillage in Texas (B.L. Harris and A.E. Colburn, editors), Texas Agricultural Extension Service B-1290, Texas A&M University, 1979. [BACK] 24. Lyle, Fenster, Ferguson and Wendt, op. cit. [BACK] 25. Norman K. Whittlesey, "Demand Response to Increasing Electricity Prices by Pacific Northwest Irrigated Agriculture," College of Agricultural Research Center, Bulletin 0897, Washington State University, 1981. [BACK] 26. Neville P. Clarke, "Texas Agriculture in the 80's: The Critical Decade," Texas Agricultural Experiment Station B-1341, Texas A&M University, 1980. 27. Ibid. [BACK] 26. Neville P. Clarke, "Texas Agriculture in the 80's: The Critical Decade," Texas Agricultural Experiment Station B-1341, Texas A&M University, 1980. 27. Ibid. [BACK] 28. B.A. Steward, D.A. Dusek, and J.T. Musick, "A Management System for the Conjunctive Use of Rainfall and Limited Irrigation of Graded Furrows," Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1981), pp. 413-419. [BACK] 29. Lyle, Fenster, Ferguson and Wendt., op. cit. break [BACK] 1. Ronald H. Delaney and John Borrelli (eds.), "Proceedings of the Symposium on Management of Intermountain Meadows," University of Wyoming, June 7-9, 1979. [BACK] 2. John Borrelli and Robert Burman, "Evapotranspiration from Heterogeneous Mountain Meadows," Water Resources Series No. 86, University of Wyoming, July 1982. [BACK] 3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Economic Research Service, and U.S. Forest Service, "Opportunities to Improve the Efficiency of Irrigation Water Distribution and Use. A Case Study, Upper Snake River Basin, Idaho," August 1977. [BACK] 4. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency, "Irrigation Water Use and Management," an Interagency Task Force Report, Washington, D.C., June 1979. [BACK] Chapter 8- Improving Land and Water Use Practices1. Personal Communication, Professor R.O. Hoffman, Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, May 25, 1982. [BACK] 2. N.J. Rosenberg, ed., Drought in the Great Plains: Research on Impacts and Strategies (Littleton, CO: Water Resources Publications, 1980). [BACK] 3. Harold E. Dregne, Chairman, "Report of the Task Group on Technology" in ibid., pp. 19-41. [BACK] 4. M. Evenari, L. Shanon, and N.H. Tadmor, "Runoff Farming in the Desert. I. Experimental Layout," Agron.J. 60:29-32 (1968). [BACK] 5. B.W. Greb, "Reducing Drought Effects on Croplands in the West-Central Great Plains," U.S.D.A. Information Bulletin No. 420, 1979. [BACK] 6. H.D. Wittmuss, and A. Yazar, "Conservation Tillage Strategies for Increasing Crop Production with Limited Water," Agron. Abstracts, Amer. Soc. Agron. 1977 Annual Meeting. [BACK] 7. N.J. Rosenberg, "Sown Windbreaks," SPAN 20:12-14 (1977). [BACK] 8. J.K. Aase and F.H. Siddoway, "Influence of Tall Wheatgrass Wind Barriers and Soil Drying," Agron. J. 68:627-631 (1976). [BACK] 9. W.L. Pelton and A.U. Earl, "The Influence of Field Shelter Belts on Wind Velocity and Evapotranspiration," Swift Current, Saskatchewan, Canada, Canada Dept. Agr. Exp. Farm Annual Report, mimeo, 1962. [BACK] 8. J.K. Aase and F.H. Siddoway, "Influence of Tall Wheatgrass Wind Barriers and Soil Drying," Agron. J. 68:627-631 (1976). [BACK] 10. S.R. Winter, "Suitability of Sugarbeets for Limited Irrigation in a Semi-arid Climate," Agron. J. 72:118-123 (1981). [BACK] 11. B.A. Stewart and J.T. Musick, "Conjunctive Use of Rainfall and Irrigation in Semi-arid Regions," in Vol. 1, Advances in Irrigation Science, Dan Hillel, ed. (New York: Academic Press, in press 1982). break [BACK] 12. e.g. National Academy of Sciences, Underexploited Tropical Plants with Promising Economic Values, 1975. [BACK] 13. J.W. Sturrock, "The Control of Wind in Crop Production," Chapter 52 in L.P. Smith, ed., Progress in Plant Biometeorology: The Effect of Weather and Climate on Plants (Swets and Zeitlinger, B.V. Amsterdam, 1975), pp. 349-368. [BACK] 14. J. Grace, Plant Response to Wind (New York: Academic Press, 1977). [BACK] 7. N.J. Rosenberg, "Sown Windbreaks," SPAN 20:12-14 (1977). [BACK] 8. J.K. Aase and F.H. Siddoway, "Influence of Tall Wheatgrass Wind Barriers and Soil Drying," Agron. J. 68:627-631 (1976). [BACK] 15. e.g., K.W. Brown and N.J. Rosenberg, "Shelter Effects on Microclimate, Growth and Water Use by Irrigated Sugarbeets in the Great Plains," Agric. Meteorol. 9:241-263 (1972). [BACK] 16. e.g. J.K. Radke, "The Use of Annual Wind Barriers for Protecting Row Crops," Proc. Symp. Shelterbelts on the Great Plains, R.W. Tinus, ed. Great Plains Agr. Council Pub. No. 78, 1976, pp. 79-87. [BACK] 17. J. van Eimern, R. Karschon, L.A. Razumova, and G.W. Robertson, "Windbreaks and Shelterbelts," World Meteorol. Organ. Technical Note No. 59, 1964. [BACK] 18. J.K. Marshall, "The Effect of Shelter on the Productivity of Grasslands and Field Crops," Field Crop Abstr. 20:1-14 (1967). [BACK] 19. N.J. Rosenberg, "Windbreaks for Reducing Moisture Stress," Chapter 5.3 in Amer. Soc. Agr. Engin. Monograph on Modification of the Aerial Environment of Plants, B.J. Barfield and J.F. Gerber, eds., pp. 394-408. [BACK] 14. J. Grace, Plant Response to Wind (New York: Academic Press, 1977). [BACK] 20. General Accounting Office/Controller General of the United States, Report to the Congress: Action Needed to Discourage Removal of Trees that Shelter Cropland on the Great Plains, RED-75-375, 1975. [BACK] 21. K.W. Brown and N.J. Rosenberg, "A Resistance Model to Predict Evapotranspiration and Its Application to a Sugarbeet Field," Agron J. 65:341-347 (1973). [BACK] 15. e.g., K.W. Brown and N.J. Rosenberg, "Shelter Effects on Microclimate, Growth and Water Use by Irrigated Sugarbeets in the Great Plains," Agric. Meteorol. 9:241-263 (1972). [BACK] 22. D.R. Miller, N.J. Rosenberg, and W.T. Bagley, "Soybean Water Use in the Shelter of a Slat-Fence Windbreak," Agr. Meteorol. 11:405-418 (1973). [BACK] 7. N.J. Rosenberg, "Sown Windbreaks," SPAN 20:12-14 (1977). [BACK] 23. I. Seginer, "The Effect of Albedo on Evapotranspiration Rate," Agr. Meteorol. 6:5-31 (1969). [BACK] 24. A. Aboukhaled, R.M. Hagan, and D.C. Davenport, "Effect of Kaolinite as a Reflective and Transpirant on Leaf Temperature, Transpiration, Photosynthesis and Water Use Efficiency," Water Resources Res. 6:280-289 (1970). [BACK] 25. N.J. Rosenberg and K.W. Brown,, "Measured and Modelled Effects of Microclimate Modification on Evapotranspiration by Irrigated Crops in a Region of Strong Sensible Heat Advection," Plant Response to Climatic Factors, Proc. Uppsala Symp. Ecology and Conservation, 5, UNESCO, 1973, pp. 539-546. [BACK] 24. A. Aboukhaled, R.M. Hagan, and D.C. Davenport, "Effect of Kaolinite as a Reflective and Transpirant on Leaf Temperature, Transpiration, Photosynthesis and Water Use Efficiency," Water Resources Res. 6:280-289 (1970). [BACK] 26. P.C. Doraiswamy and N.J. Rosenberg, "Reflectant Induced Modification of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Canopy Radiation Balance. I. Preliminary Tests with a Kaolinite Reflectant," Agron. J., 66:224-228 (1974). [BACK] 27. R. Lemeur and N.J. Rosenberg,, "Reflectant-Induced Modification of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Canopy Radiation Balance. II. A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Radiation Reflected by a Green Soybean Canopy," Agron. J. 67:301-306 (1975). break [BACK] 28. M.W. Baradas, B.L. Blad, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Reflectant Induced Modification of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Canopy Radiation Balance. IV. Leaf and Canopy Temperature," Agron. J. 68:843-848 (1976). [BACK] 29. M.W. Baradas, B.L. Blad, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Reflectant Induced Modification of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Canopy Radiation Balance. V. Longwave Radiation Balance," Agron. J. 68:848-852 (1976). [BACK] 29. M.W. Baradas, B.L. Blad, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Reflectant Induced Modification of Soybean ( Glycine max L.) Canopy Radiation Balance. V. Longwave Radiation Balance," Agron. J. 68:848-852 (1976). [BACK] 30. S. Moreshet, G. Stanhill, and M. Fuchs, "Effect of Increasing Foliage Reflectance on the CO 2 Uptake and Transpiration Resistance of a Grain Sorghum Crop," Agron. J. 69:246-250 (1977). [BACK] 31. H. Ferguson, C.S. Cooper, J.H. Brown, and R.F. Eslick, "Effect of Leaf Color, Chlorophyll Concentration and Temperature on Photosynthetic Rates of Isogenic Barley Lines," Agron J. 64:671-673 (1972). [BACK] 32. J.T. Wooley, "Water Relations of Soybean Leaf Hairs," Agron. J. 56:569-571 (1964). [BACK] 33. S.R. Ghorashy, J.W. Pendleton, D.B. Peters, J.S. Boyer, and J.E. Beuerlein, "Internal Water Stress and Apparent Photosynthesis with Soybeans Differing in Pubescence," Agron. J. 63:674-676 (1971). [BACK] 34. H.W. Gausman and R. Cardenas, "Light Reflectance by Leaflets of Pubescent, Normal and Glaborous Soybean Lines," Agron J. 65:837-878 (1973). [BACK] 32. J.T. Wooley, "Water Relations of Soybean Leaf Hairs," Agron. J. 56:569-571 (1964). [BACK] 33. S.R. Ghorashy, J.W. Pendleton, D.B. Peters, J.S. Boyer, and J.E. Beuerlein, "Internal Water Stress and Apparent Photosynthesis with Soybeans Differing in Pubescence," Agron. J. 63:674-676 (1971). [BACK] 35. J.R. Ehleringer and O. Bjorkman, "Pubescence and Leaf Spectral Characteristics in a Desert Shrub, Encelia Farinosa," Oecologia 36:151-162 (1978). [BACK] 36. J.R. Ehleringer and H.N. Mooney, "Leaf Hairs: Effects on Physiological Activity and Adaptive Value to a Desert Shrub," Oecologia 37:183-200 (1978). [BACK] 33. S.R. Ghorashy, J.W. Pendleton, D.B. Peters, J.S. Boyer, and J.E. Beuerlein, "Internal Water Stress and Apparent Photosynthesis with Soybeans Differing in Pubescence," Agron. J. 63:674-676 (1971). [BACK] 37. R.C. Hartung, J.E. Specht, and J.H. Williams, "Agronomic Performance of Selected Soybean Morphological Variants in Irrigation Culture with Two Row Spacings," Crop Sci. 20:604-609 (1980). [BACK] 38. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, N.J. Rosenberg, A. Garay, and J.E. Specht, "Influence of Leaf Pubescence on the Mass and Energy Exchange between Soybean Canopies and the Atmosphere," Agron. J. (submitted 1982). [BACK] 39. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Microclimate in the Soybean Canopy," Ag. Meteorol. (submitted 1982). [BACK] 40. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Characteristics of Air Flow Above and Within Soybean Canopies," Boundary Layer Meteorol. (submitted 1982). break [BACK] 37. R.C. Hartung, J.E. Specht, and J.H. Williams, "Agronomic Performance of Selected Soybean Morphological Variants in Irrigation Culture with Two Row Spacings," Crop Sci. 20:604-609 (1980). [BACK] 38. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, N.J. Rosenberg, A. Garay, and J.E. Specht, "Influence of Leaf Pubescence on the Mass and Energy Exchange between Soybean Canopies and the Atmosphere," Agron. J. (submitted 1982). [BACK] 39. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Microclimate in the Soybean Canopy," Ag. Meteorol. (submitted 1982). [BACK] 40. D.B. Baldocchi, S.B. Verma, and N.J. Rosenberg, "Characteristics of Air Flow Above and Within Soybean Canopies," Boundary Layer Meteorol. (submitted 1982). break [BACK] Chapter 9- Improving Irrigation Systems*1. U.S. Water Resources Council, Synthetic Fuels Development in the Upper Colorado Region, Sect. 13(a), Water Assessment Report, July 1981. break [BACK] 2. A. Wolman, Water Resources, National Academy of Science, NRC Publ. 1000-B, 1962. [BACK] 3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, America's Soil and Water: Conditions and Trends, 1980. [BACK] 4. California Dept. of Water Resources, Use of Water by Imperial Irrigation District, District Report, December 1981. 5. Ibid. [BACK] 4. California Dept. of Water Resources, Use of Water by Imperial Irrigation District, District Report, December 1981. 5. Ibid. [BACK] 6. Interagency Task Force, Irrigation Water Use and Management, Task Force Report, USDI, USDA and EPA, June 1979. [BACK] 7. J.T. Musick, ARS-USDA, Bushland, Texas, personal communication. [BACK] 8. H.R. Duke, ARS-USDA, Fort Collins, Colorado, personal communication. [BACK] 9. A.R. Dedrick, ARS-USDA, Phoenix, Arizona, personal communication. [BACK] 10. D.F. Heermann, ARS-USDA, Fort Collins, Colorado, personal communication. [BACK] 11. Data derived from research project "Water Requirements of Cotton," unpublished study. [BACK] 12. R.R. Lansford, P.J. Wieringa, T.W. Sammis, and B.J. Creel, Demonstration of Irrigation Return Flow Water Quality Control in the Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, Project Summary, EPA-600/S2-82-071, 1982. [BACK] 1. M.J. English and G.S. Nuss, "Designing for Deficit Irrigation," Proceedings ASCE, Vol. 108, No. IR-2 (June 1982). break [BACK] Chapter 10- Local and Regional Economic Impacts1. Alan Randall, "Property Entitlements and Pricing Policies for a Maturing Water Economy," unpublished working paper, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Kentucky, 1982. [BACK] 2. The limited impact hypothesis is not new, being expressed in among others, Jack Hirshleifer et al., Water Supply: Economics, Technology and Policy, University of Chicago Press, 1960; J.S. Bain et al., Northern California's Water Industry, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966; R.A. Young and W.E. Martin, "The Economics of Arizona's Water Problem," Arizona Review, March 1967; M.M. Kelso, W.E. Martin, and L.E. Mack, Water Supplies and Economic Growth: An Arizona Case Study, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972. [BACK] 3. K.E. Boulding, "The Implications of Improved Water Application," in Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City (sponsor), Western Water Resources, Boulder: Westview Press, 1980. [BACK] 4. For a detailed discussion, see R.A. Young and S.L. Gray, Economic Value of Water: Concepts and Empirical Estimates, Technical Report U.S. National Water Commission, National Technical Information Service, PB210356, March 1972. [BACK] 5. B.R. Beattie, personal communication, Department of Agricultural Economics and Economics, Montana State University, Bozeman, 1980. [BACK] 6. R.E. Howitt, D.E. Mann, and H.J. Vaux, Jr., "The Economics of Water Allocation," in Ernest A. Engelbert with Ann F. Scheuring (eds.), Competition for California Water: Alternative Resolutions, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. [BACK] 7. N.R. Gollehon, R.R. Lansford, et al., "Impacts on Irrigated Agriculture for Energy Development in the Rocky Mountain Region," Southwestern Review of Management and Economics, 1(1:61-88), Spring 1981. break [BACK] 8. L.R. Brown, "Conflicting Claims to Southwestern Water: The Equity and Management Issues," Southwestern Review of Management and Economics, 1(1:35-60), Spring 1981. [BACK] 9. R.A. Young and S.L. Gray, op. cit. (note 4 above). [BACK] 10. H. Gold et al., "Water Requirements for Steam-Electric Power Generation and Synthetic Fuel Plants in the Western United States," Environmental Protection Agency Report No. 600/7-77-037, February 1977. [BACK] 11. David Abbey, "Energy Production and Water Resources in the Colorado River Basin," Natural Resources Journal, 19(2:275-314), 1979. [BACK] 12. Marie Leigh, "Competition for Water: Energy vs. Agriculture," paper prepared for ASCE Conference, "Water and Energy: Technical and Policy Issues," Fort Collins, Colorado, June 1982. [BACK] 13. C.W. Howe and F.P. Lineaweaver, "The Impact of Price on Residential Water Demand," Water Resources Research, 3(2) 1967. [BACK] 14. R.E. Howitt et al., op. cit. (note 6 above). [BACK] 15. R.L. Gardner and T.A. Miller, "An Explanation of Price Behavior in the Water Rights Market of Northeastern Colorado," Department of Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins (paper prepared for delivery to Annual Conference, American Agricultural Economics Association, Logan, Utah, August 1982). [BACK] 16. R.A. Young and S.L. Gray, op. cit., (note 4 above). [BACK] 17. Norman Whittlesey and R. Gibbs, "Energy and Irrigation in Washington," Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 3(1:1-11), 1978. [BACK] 18. L.B. Merritt and B.W. Mar, "Marginal Values of Dilution Water," Water Resources Research, 5(6), December 1969. [BACK] 19. R.A. Young and S.L. Gray, op. cit. (note 4 above). [BACK] 20. J.T. Daubert and R.A. Young with S.L. Gray, Economic Benefits from Instream Flow in a Colorado Mountain Stream, Completion Report 91, Water Resources Research Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, June 1979. [BACK] 21. R.G. Walsh, et al., An Empirical Application of a Model for Estimating the Recreation Value of Instream Flow, Completion Report 101, Water Resources Research Institute, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, October 1980. [BACK] 22. C.J. Cicchetti et al., "An Economic Analysis of Water Resource Investment and Regional Economic Growth," Water Resources Research, 11(1:1-6), February 1975. [BACK] 23. H. Fullerton et al., Regional Development: An Econometric Study of the Role of Water Development in Effectuating Population and Income Changes, Report PRRBE980-1, Utah State University Water Research Laboratory, Logan, 1975. [BACK] 24. M.M. Kelso et al., op. cit. (note 2 above). [BACK] 25. R.A. Young et al., Energy and Water Scarcity and the Irrigated Agriculture Economy of the Colorado High Plains: Direct Economic-Hydrologic Impact Analysis, Technical Report 29, Colorado Water Resources Research Institute, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, February 1982; J.R. McKean, Projected Population, Employment and Economic Outlook on Colorado's Eastern Plains: 1979-2020, Technical Report 33, Colorado Water Resources Research Institute, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, February 1982. [BACK] 26. N.R. Gollehon et al., op. cit. (note 7 above). break [BACK] 1. R.E. Howitt, Dean E. Mann, and H.J. Vaux, "The Economics of Water Allocation," Ernest A. Engelbert with Ann F. Scheuring (eds.), Competition for California Water Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp. 136-162. [BACK] 1. Jill Leslie Findeis and Norman K. Whittlesey, Competition Between Irrigation and Hydropower Water Use in Washington State, State of Washington Water Research Center, Washington State University, Report No. 44, 1982. break [BACK] Chapter 11- National and International Commodity Price Impacts1. S.H. Boerma, "The World Could Be Fed," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1975, pp. 4-11. Also, Food and Agricultural Organization, Agriculture Towards 2000, 20th Session, United Nations, Rome, 1979. [BACK] 2. Douglas Christensen, Andrew Morton, and Earl O. Heady, Potential Effects of Increased Water Prices on U.S. Agriculture, CARD Report No. 101, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1981. Also, Ralph W. Cummings, Jr., "Food Production and the Energy Crisis," Working Papers of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 1974. [BACK] 3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1977 National Resources Inventory, Washington, 1978. [BACK] 4. Earl O. Heady, "The Adequacy of Agricultural Land," in Pierre Crosson, The Croplands Crisis: Myth or Reality (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982), pp. 23-56. 5. Ibid. [BACK] 4. Earl O. Heady, "The Adequacy of Agricultural Land," in Pierre Crosson, The Croplands Crisis: Myth or Reality (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982), pp. 23-56. 5. Ibid. [BACK] 6. Yoo-chi Lu, Philip Cline, and Leroy Quance, Prospects for Productivity Growth in U.S. Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, ESCS, Agricultural Economic Report No. 435, Washington, 1979. break [BACK] 7. R. Fuller, "More and More Effort Yields Less and Less," Des Moines Register and Tribune, Sunday, February 17, 1980. [BACK] 8. S.H. Wittwer, "Increased Crop Yields and Livestock Productivity," in Marilyn Chou (ed.), World Food Prospects and Agricultural Potential (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1977), pp. 66-135. [BACK] 9. S.H. Wittwer, "New Technology, Agricultural Productivity and Conservation," in Halcrow, Heady, and Cotner (eds.), Soil Conservation Policies, Institutions and Incentives, Ch. 9, (Ankeny: Soil Conservation Society of America, 1982). [BACK] 10. Earl O. Heady, "The Adequacy of Agricultural Land," and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Workshop on Emerging Technologies, Washington, D.C., October 1981, forthcoming. [BACK] 11. Earl O. Heady, Howard C. Madsen, Kenneth J. Nicol, and Stanley H. Hargrove, Agricultural and Water Policies and the Environment: An Analysis of National Alternatives in Natural Resource Use, Food Supply Capacity and Environmental Quality, CARD Report No. 40, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1972. [BACK] 12. Burton C. English, Earl O. Heady, and Klaus F. Alt, A Documentation of the Resources Conservation Act's Assessment Model of Regional Agricultural Production, Land and Water Use, and Soil Loss, CARD Report No. 107T, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1982. Also, Burton C. English, and Earl O. Heady, Short- and Long-Term Analysis of the Impacts of Several Soil Loss Control Measures on Agriculture, CARD Report No. 93, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1980. [BACK] 13. USDA, Soil Conservation Service, 1977 National Resources Inventory. [BACK] 14. Anton D. Meister, Earl O. Heady, Kenneth J. Nicol, and Roger W. Strohbehn, U.S. Agricultural Production in Relation to Alternative Water, Environmental and Export Policies, CARD Report No. 65, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1976. [BACK] 15. Douglas Christensen, Earl O. Heady, and Andrew Morton, Potential Water Use and Agricultural Production Patterns Under Alternative Water Prices, American Water Bulletin, vol. 17, No. 2, 1981, pp. 844-850. Also, P.S. George, and G.A. King, Consumer Demand for Food Commodities in the United States With Projections for 1980, Giannini Foundation Monograph 26, University of California, 1971. [BACK] 16. Kenneth D. Frederick estimates per acre-foot pumping costs at 200 feet by the year 2000 with costs of $35.52 by electricity, $50.40 by LP gas and $60.00 by diesel, in his mimeographed paper, "Irrigation and the Adequacy of Agricultural Land" (Resources for the Future, Washington, 1979). [BACK] 17. The indicated quantity of water for the RCA maximum production might not be available if competition from other uses became overriding and larger than expected. [BACK] 18. See Christensen, Morton, and Heady, note 2. [BACK] 19. H.W. Ayer, and Paul G. Hoyt, Crop Water Production Functions: Economic Implications for Arizona, Technical Bulletin 242, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1981. [BACK] 20. Des Moines Sunday Register, "Colorado Thirsts for Growth and Water," December 23, 1979, p. 2A. break [BACK] 21. Earl O. Heady, and Roger W. Hexem, Water Production Functions in Irrigated Agriculture (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1978). [BACK] 22. Cameron Short, Earl O. Heady, Anthony F. Turhollow, Jr., and Kun Chol Lee, Regional Impacts of Groundwater Mining from the Ogallala Aquifer with Increasing Energy Prices, 1990 and 2000, CARD Report No. 98, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, Ames, 1981. [BACK] 23. The 1977 NRI estimated 60.7 acres irrigated which are higher than the 1974 Census estimated. It is considered that the census underestimates irrigated acreage. See Frederick. [BACK] 24. George E. Brandow, Interrelationships Among Demands for Farm Products and Implications for Control of Market Supply, Penn State University Station Bulletin 680, 1961. Also, Rex F. Daly, "Demand for Farm Products at Retail and Farm Level," Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 53, 1958, pp. 656-668. Also, J. Mann and G. St. George, Estimates of Elasticities of Food Demand in the United States, Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture TB-1580, March 1978. Also, P.S. George, and G.A. King, Consumer Demand for Food Commodities in the United States with Projections for 1980, Giannini Foundation Monograph 26, University of California, 1971. [BACK] 25. Chapter 12- Impacts upon Business Communities1. "Water Conservation: A National Priority," EPA Journal, March 1980, p. 17. break [BACK] Chapter 13- Social Impacts on Rural Communities1. W.D. Rasmussen, "The Mechanization of Agriculture," Scientific American, 247 (September, 1982), pp. 76-89; N. Burns, "The Collapse of Small Towns on the Great Plains: A Bibliography," The Emporia State Research Studies, XXXI (Summer, 1982), pp. 5-36. [BACK] 2. E. Shils, "The Integration of Society," in The Constitution of Society (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 3-52. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. [BACK] R. Lamm, Aggregate Food Demand and the Supply of Agricultural Products, Economics and Statistics Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Tech. Bul. 1658, Washington, 1981. Also, if we used Lamm's estimates, we more nearly set the price change at 10 percent. Currently, however, we are inclined to "go with the majority" of an elasticity around -.25. [BACK] 26. Maury E. Bredahl, William H. Meyers, and Keith J. Collins, "The Elasticity of Foreign Demand for U.S. Agricultural Products: The Importance of the Price Transmission Elasticity," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61(1979):58-63. Also, Paul R. Johnson, "The Elasticity of Foreign Demand for U.S. Agricultural Products," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 59(1977):735-36. [BACK] 1. Kenneth D. Frederick and James C. Hudson, Water for Western Agriculture, Research Paper, Resources for the Future, 1982. [BACK] 2. Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study, A Report to the U.S. Department of Commerce and the High Plains Study Council by High Plains Associates: Camp Dresser and McKee Inc.; Black and Veatch; Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1982. [BACK] 3. Pierre R. Crosson, ed., The Cropland Crisis: Myth or Reality?, Resources for the Future, 1982; Pierre R. Crosson and Sterling Brubaker, Resource and Environmental Effects of U.S. Agriculture, Resources for the Future, 1982. [BACK] 4. Robert A. Young and S. Lee Gray, Economic Value of Water: Concepts and Empirical Estimates, Department of Economics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, March, 1972. [BACK] 1. High Plains Study Council, Congressional Briefing: Six-State High Plains: Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study, February 1981. [BACK] 2. High Plains Study Council, National and Regional Price Impact Assessment, Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resource Study, March 1982. break [BACK] 2. E. Shils, "The Integration of Society," in The Constitution of Society (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 3-52. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. [BACK] 2. E. Shils, "The Integration of Society," in The Constitution of Society (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 3-52. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. [BACK] 5. R.M. Williams Jr., American Society: A Sociological Interpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970). [BACK] 6. W.G. Matlock, Realistic Planning for Arid Lands: Natural Resources Limitations to Agricultural Development (London: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1981), p. 4. [BACK] 7. T.W. Box, The Arid Lands Revisited-One Hundred Years Since John Wesley Powell (Logan, Utah: Utah State University, n.d.), pp. 4-7. break [BACK] 8. C. Hodge, "Aridity and Man: An Interpretive Summary," in Carle Hodge, ed., Aridity and Man: The Challenge of the Arid Lands in the United States (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1963), pp. 1-19. [BACK] 9. G. Sloggett, Prospects for Ground-Water Irrigation: Declining Levels and Rising Energy Costs (Washington, D.C.: National Resource Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981), p. 9. 10. Ibid., p. 9. 11. Ibid., p. 20. [BACK] 9. G. Sloggett, Prospects for Ground-Water Irrigation: Declining Levels and Rising Energy Costs (Washington, D.C.: National Resource Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981), p. 9. 10. Ibid., p. 9. 11. Ibid., p. 20. [BACK] 9. G. Sloggett, Prospects for Ground-Water Irrigation: Declining Levels and Rising Energy Costs (Washington, D.C.: National Resource Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981), p. 9. 10. Ibid., p. 9. 11. Ibid., p. 20. [BACK] 12. High Plains Study Council, Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study, Preliminary First Draft (Spring 1982) II-3. Unpublished. 13. Ibid., V-4. [BACK] 12. High Plains Study Council, Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study, Preliminary First Draft (Spring 1982) II-3. Unpublished. 13. Ibid., V-4. [BACK] 14. C.S. Fischer, The Urban Experience (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovch, 1976). [BACK] 15. K.P. Wilkinson, "Consequences of Decline and Social Adjustment to It," in Communities Left Behind: Alternatives for Development, edited by Larry R. Whiting (Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1974), pp. 43-53. [BACK] 16. B.N. Adams, "The Small Trade Center: Processes and Perceptions of Growth or Decline," in The Community: A Comparative Perspective, edited by Robert Mills French (Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock, 1969), pp. 471-84. 17. Ibid., p. 481. [BACK] 16. B.N. Adams, "The Small Trade Center: Processes and Perceptions of Growth or Decline," in The Community: A Comparative Perspective, edited by Robert Mills French (Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock, 1969), pp. 471-84. 17. Ibid., p. 481. [BACK] 18. R.C. Martin, et al., Decisions in Syracuse (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1961). [BACK] 19. M. Clawson, "The Dying Community: The Natural Resource Base," in The Dying Community, edited by Art Gallaher, Jr. and Harland Padfield (Albuquerque, N.M.: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), pp. 55-83. 20. Ibid. [BACK] 19. M. Clawson, "The Dying Community: The Natural Resource Base," in The Dying Community, edited by Art Gallaher, Jr. and Harland Padfield (Albuquerque, N.M.: University of New Mexico Press, 1980), pp. 55-83. 20. Ibid. [BACK] 21. B.N. Adams, op. cit. [BACK] 22. H. Aldrich and D.A. Whetten, "Organization-sets, Action-sets and Networks: Making the Most of Simplicity," in Handbook of Organizational Design. I, edited by Paul C. Nystrom and William H. Starbuck (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 385-408; J. Pfeffer and G.R. Salancik, The External Control of Organizations (New York: Harper & Row, 1978); J.D. Thompson, Organizations in Action (New York: McGraw Hill, 1967); H.E. Aldrich, Organizations & Environments (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979). [BACK] 23. A. Schaffer, R.C. Schaffer, and G.M. Halter, Social Impacts of McClellan-Kerr Navigation System: A Study of Public Sector Response to Water Resource Development (Fort Belvoir, Va.: U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water Resources, 1981.) [BACK] 24. M. Aiken and R.R. Alford, "Community Structure and Innovation: The Case of Public Housing," American Political Science Review (September, 1970), pp. 843-864. [BACK] 25. H.L. Wilensky, "Careers, Life Style, and Social Integration," in Sigmund Nosow and William H. Form, eds., Man, Work & Society (New York: Basic Books, 1962), pp. 329-32. break [BACK] 26. R. Blauner, Alienation and Freedom (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964); D. Yankelovich, "The Work Ethic is Underemployed," Psychology Today, 16 (May 1982), p. 8; C.M. Arensberg, "Work and the Changing American Scene," in Nosow and Form, eds., op cit., pp. 24-28; N.C. Morse, and R.S. Weiss, "The Function and Meaning of Work and the Job," in Nosow and Form, eds., op. cit., pp. 29-35. [BACK] 27. E. Ginzberg, The Manpower Connection: Education and Work (Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press, 1975). [BACK] 28. D. Yankelovich, op. cit. [BACK] 29. N.C. Morse, and R.S. Weiss, "The Function and Meaning of Work and the Job," in Nosow and Form, eds., op. cit., pp. 29-35. [BACK] 30. R. Sennett and J. Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1973). [BACK] 31. M. Jahoda, P.F. Lazarsfeld, and H. Zeisel, Marienthal: The Sociography of an Unemployed Community (Chicago, Aldine-Atherton, 1971). [BACK] 32. H.H. Hyman, "The Effects of Unemployment: A Neglected Problem in Modern Social Research," in Robert K. Merton, James S. Coleman, and Peter H. Rossi, eds., Qualitative and Quantitative Social Research: Papers in Honor of Paul F. Lazarsfeld (New York: Free Press, 1979), pp. 282-298. 33. Ibid., pp. 290-293. [BACK] 32. H.H. Hyman, "The Effects of Unemployment: A Neglected Problem in Modern Social Research," in Robert K. Merton, James S. Coleman, and Peter H. Rossi, eds., Qualitative and Quantitative Social Research: Papers in Honor of Paul F. Lazarsfeld (New York: Free Press, 1979), pp. 282-298. 33. Ibid., pp. 290-293. [BACK] 34. N. Krumholz and J. Cogger, "The Challenge of Contracting Municipalities," in George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes, eds., Revitalizing the Northeast (New Brunswick, N.J.: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1978), pp. 371-377; R. Starr, "Making New York Smaller," in George Sternlieb and James W. Hughes, eds., op. cit., pp. 373-389; G. Breckenfeld, "It's Up to Cities to Save Themselves," in Sternlieb and Hughes, eds., op. cit., pp. 390-404; M.J. Kasoff, "Public and Private Infrastructure in Mature Cities," in Edward W. Hanten, Mark J. Kasoff, and F. Redburn, eds., New Directions for the Mature Metropolis (Cambridge, Ma.: Schenkman, 1980), pp. 128-141; W. Thompson, "Toward a Strategy for Central City Depopulation," in Hanten, Kasoff and Redburn, eds., op. cit., pp. 142-153. [BACK] 35. N. Krumholz, and J. Cogger, op. cit. [BACK] 36. G. Breckenfeld, op. cit., pp. 392-393. [BACK] 37. M. Clawson, op. cit. [BACK] 38. High Plains Study Council, Six-State High Plains Ogallala Aquifer Regional Resources Study, Preliminary First Draft (Spring 1982), pp. 1-4. Unpublished. [BACK] 1. William H. Friedland, "Seasonal Farm Laborers and Worker Consciousness," in R. and I. Simpson (eds.), Research in the Sociology of Work (Greenwich: JAI Press, 1981), pp. 351-380. [BACK] 2. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1981, Washington, Government Printing Office: Table 658, p. 390. [BACK] 3. Space precludes expanding this point but the literature is detailed in describing the "thin," class-ridden societies characterized by enormous discrepancies in income and by the realization of wealth at geographical locations other than where the wealth is actually produced. See, for example, Walter Goldschmidt, As You Sow (Montclair, N.J.: Allanheld, Osmun, 1978). break [BACK] Chapter 15- Environmental Impacts1. U.S. Water Resources Council, The Nation's Water Resources 1975-2000: The Second National Water Assessment (Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1978). See Vol. 2, Water Quantity, Quality and Related Land Considerations. [BACK] 2. See: B.A. Stewart, D.A. Woolhiser, W.H. Wischmeier, J.H. Caro, and M.H. Frere, "Control of Water Pollution from Cropland," Vol. I, A Manual for Guideline Development (Agricultural Research Service, USDA, and Office of Research and Development, EPA, ARS-H-5-1, 1975); S.G. Unger, "Environmental Implications of Trends in Agriculture and Silviculture," in Best Management Practices for Agriculture and Silviculture, R.C. Loehr, D.A. Haith, M.F. Walter, and C.S. Martin, eds. (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science, 1979); G.W. Bailey, and T.E. Waddell, "Best Management Practices for Agriculture and Silviculture: An Integrated Review," in Best Management Practices for Agriculture and Silviculture; and W.C. White and H. Plate, "Best Management Practices for Fertilizer Use," in Best Management Practices for Agriculture and Silviculture. [BACK] 3. National Agricultural Lands Study, United States Department of Agriculture and the Council on Environmental Quality, in cooperation with 10 other federal agencies, 1981. [BACK] 4. No-Till Farmer, Frank Lessiter, ed., Waukesha, Wisc. 10(3):4-5 (1982). break [BACK] 5. H.P. Mapp, "The Six-State Ogallala Aquifer Area Study: Baseline Results for the Agricultural Sector," Professional Paper No. P-1065, Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, 1981. [BACK] 6. Soil, Water, and Related Resources in the United States: Status, Condition, and Trends, 1980 Appraisal, Part 1, United States Department of Agriculture, 1981. [BACK] Chapter 16- What Farmers Can Do for Themselves1. "Challenges and Responses," Progressive Agriculture in Arizona, 31:4 (Winter 1981), p. 8, University of Arizona, College of Agriculture, Tucson. break [BACK] 2. Scott H. Hathorn, Jr., University of Arizona Agricultural Economics Dept., personal communication, July 1982. [BACK] 3. Walt Parsons, U.S. Soil Conservation Service and Arizona Dept. of Water Resources, Phoenix, personal communication, July 1982. [BACK] 4. John Daubert and Harry Ayer, Laser Leveling and Farm Profits, Technical Bulletin 244, University of Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station and USDA Economic Research Service, Tucson, June 1982. [BACK] 5. Walt Parsons, personal communication (see note 3). 6. Daubert and Ayer, ibid. [BACK] 5. Walt Parsons, personal communication (see note 3). 6. Daubert and Ayer, ibid. [BACK] 7. "Challenges and Responses," Progressive Agriculture in Arizona. [BACK] 8. M. Scott Tollefson, "Drip Irrigation on Cotton," Proceedings of Symposium Alternatives for On-Farm Energy Conservation, Production and Use, University of Arizona College of Agriculture and Arizona Energy Office, Phoenix, May 1982. [BACK] 9. Will Anderson, "Aerated Drip Irrigation," Farm Bureau Energy Idea Search, American Farm Bureau Federation, November 1980. [BACK] 10. Brad DeSpain, "Irrigation with Sewage Effluent," Cortaro-Marana Irrigation District, Tucson, January 1981. [BACK] 11. Scott H. Hathorn, Jr., personal communication. [BACK] 12. Guy Webster, "High Salt, Low Water Barleys," Progressive Agriculture in Arizona, 31:1 (September 1981), p. 1, University of Arizona College of Agriculture, Tucson. [BACK] Chapter 17- What Financial and Business Interests Can Do1. A.L. Stoeker, M.L. Wright, and D.A. Pyles, "An Input-Output Model of the Texas High Plains Economy in 1977," Department of Agricultural Economics, Texas Tech. University and Texas Department of Water Resources, Austin, Texas, August 1981. [BACK] 2. Much of the information on research and development was taken from "A Summary of Results of the Ogallala Aquifer Regional Study, with Recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce and Congress," High Plains Study Council: Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas, August 12, 1982. break [BACK] Chapter 18- Water Rights and Market Transfers*1. See F. Lee Brown, et al., "Water Reallocation, Market Proficiency, and Conflicting Social Values," in Western Water Institutions in a Changing Environment, John Muir Institute, Napa, California, 1980. [BACK] 2. R. Khoshaklagh, F.L. Brown, and C. DuMars, Forecasting Future Market Values of Water Rights in New Mexico, Report #92, New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute, Las Cruces, N.M. [BACK] 3. Water rights prices in various basins at various times are reported in the studies mentioned in the preceding two footnotes. [BACK] 4. Based on information in the San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 14, 1981. [BACK] 5. For a discussion of the energy industry's greater ability to pay, see David Abbey et al., "The Role of Water in Energy Development," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,, January 1982. Available from Los Alamos National Laboratory. [BACK] 6. The vision of John Wesley Powell's Report on the Arid Region of the United States, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., is even more remarkable for its prescience when read in retrospect. [BACK] 7. P.F. Drucker, Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, Harper & Row, 1973, 1974, p.37. [BACK] 8. A. Maass, and R.L. Anderson, And the Desert Shall Rejoice: Conflict, Growth and Justice in Arid Environments, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1978. 9. Ibid., p. 5 [BACK] 8. A. Maass, and R.L. Anderson, And the Desert Shall Rejoice: Conflict, Growth and Justice in Arid Environments, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1978. 9. Ibid., p. 5 [BACK] 10. K. Boulding, in Western Water Resources: Coming Problems and the Policy Alternatives, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1980, p. 306. 11. Ibid., p. 306. [BACK] 10. K. Boulding, in Western Water Resources: Coming Problems and the Policy Alternatives, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1980, p. 306. 11. Ibid., p. 306. [BACK] 12. H.P. Hood and Sons v. DuMond, 336 U.S. 525 (1949). [BACK] 13. Irvin v. Phillips, 5 Cal. 140 (1955). [BACK] 14. Hardy v. Beaver County Irrigation, 65 Utah 28, 234 P. 524 (1924); Wash v. Wallace, 26 Nev. 299, 67 P. 914 (1920); State ex. rel. Reynolds v. Miranda, 83 N.M. 443, 493 P. 2d 409 (1972). [BACK] 15. 530 P.2d 924 (Ida. 1974). [BACK] 16. Id. Colorado and Washington are in accord. [BACK] 17. 292 N.W. 2d 239 (Neb. 1940). [BACK] 18. Colo. Rev. Stat. § 37-92-102(2)(d). [BACK] 19. Cache LaPoudre Water Users Ass'n v. Glacier View Meadows, 550 P.2d 288 (Colo. 1976). [BACK] 20. See Wyoming Hereford Ranch v. Hammond Packing Co., 236 P. 764 (Wyo. 1925). break [BACK] 21. Wash. Rev. Code Ann. 90.54.020(2). See also Alaska Stat. 46.15.080 and Idaho Code § 43-203. [BACK] 22. 32 Stat. 388, 43 U.S.C. § 12 (1978). [BACK] 23. Ellis and DuMars, "The Two-Tiered Market in Western Water," 57 Neb. L. Rev. 333 (1978). [BACK] 24. 438 U.S. 645, 653. [BACK] 25. United States v. New Mexico, 238 U.S. 696 (1978). [BACK] 26. See J. Palma, "Considerations and Conclusions Concerning the Transferability of Indian Water Rights," 20 Nat. Res. J. 91 (1980). [BACK] 27. Arizona v. California, 373 U.S. 546 (1963), supplemental decree. [BACK] 28. DuMars and Ingram, "Congressional Quantification of Indian Reserved Water Rights: A Definitive Solution or a Mirage?" 20 Nat. Res. J. 17 (1980). [BACK] 29. State ex rel. Cromley v. District Court, 88 P.2d 23 (Mont. 1939). [BACK] 30. 589 P.2d 57 (1978). [BACK] 31. Special Masters Report at 10, Colorado v. New Mexico, origin no. 84. [BACK] 32. See, for example, Texas. [BACK] 33. Lodi v. East Bay Municipal District, 60 p.2d 439 (Cal. 1936). [BACK] 34. 366 P.2d 552 (Colo. 1961). [BACK] 35. 366 P.2d at 556. See also Baker v. Ore-Ida Foods, Inc., 513 P.2d 627 (Ida. 1973). [BACK] 36. State ex rel. Reynolds v. South Springs Co., 452 P.2d 478 (N.M. 1969). [BACK] 37. Mathers v. Texaco, 421 P.2d 771 (N.M. 1966), upholding state engineer conclusion that 40 years would be appropriate time because it corresponded to pay period on reclamation loans. [BACK] 38. F. Trelease, Water Law, 3rd. ed., 1979, p. 463, quoting (Todd, 1959). [BACK] 39. See Heine v. Reynolds, 367 P.2d 708 (1962). [BACK] 40. See, for example, N.M. Stat. Ann. § 72-12-19 (1978). [BACK] 41. Sporhase, slip op. at 16. [BACK] 1. Arthur Maass, and Raymond L. Anderson, . . . and the Desert Shall Rejoice (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1978). [BACK] 2. John Nichols, The Milagro Beanfield War (New York: Ballantine Books, 1974). break [BACK] 1. Coply International Corporation, The Market Structure of the Southern California Water Industry. [BACK] 2. Michael B. Teitz and Richard A. Walker, "Industry," in Competition for California Water: Alternative Resolutions, (University of California Press, 1982). [BACK] 3. Mark N. Christensen, Glenn W. Harrison, and Larry J. Kimbell, "Energy," in Competition for California Water: Alternative Resolutions, (University of California Press, 1982). [BACK] 4. B. Delworth Gardner, et al., "Agriculture," in Competition for California Water: Alternative Resolutions (University of California Press, 1982). break [BACK] Chapter 20- Federal Water Policies and Irrigated Agriculture1. This view has had strong proponents, especially since 1958. A succinct statement appears in D.B. Gardner, "The Water Management Crunch: An Economic Perspective," in Walter Jeske (ed.), Economics, Ethics, Ecology: Costs of Productive Conservation (Ankeny, IA: Soil Conservation Society of America, 1981), pp. 67-77. [BACK] 2. An indication of the kinds of shifts that can occur in part of the arid West can be found in the Six State High Plains-Ogallala Aquifer continue Regional Resources Study, in Camp, Dresser & McKee, Report of the High Plains Ogallala Study (Austin, Texas: High Plains Associates, 1982). [BACK] 3. A somewhat dated but good summary of the relationship between water supply and competition within the region is found in Water Policies for the Future , Final Report to the President and te Congress of the United States by the National Water Commission (Washington, D.C.: 1973), pp. 48-61. [BACK] 4. This is summarized in H.P. Caulfield, "Water Policy and Irrigated Agriculture," paper for Annual meeting, American Association for Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., January 4, 1982, pp. 3-9. [BACK] 5. See U.S. Water Resources Council, Planning and Cost Sharing Policy Options for Water and Related Land Programs , Part 5a (Washington, D.C.: 1975) pp. 61-68 and pp. B-7 and B-8. Care in interpretation of these findings is necessary due to divergence between project repayment rates and 1975 rate of 6-7/8 percent used in the analysis. [BACK] 6. See J.L. Sax, "Selling Reclamation Water Rights: A Case Study in Federal Subsidy Policy, " Michigan Law Review , November 1965, pp. 13-32, and R.R. Rucker and P.V. Fishback, "The Federal Reclamation Program: An Analysis of Rent Seeking Behavior," in T.L. Anderson, Water Resources Bureaucracy, Property Rights and the Environment (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger Publishers, Inc. and the Pacific Institute, forthcoming). [BACK] 7. For an example of the kinds of criticisms that have been offered, see General Accounting Office, CED 78-127, An Overview of Benefit Cost Analysis for Water Resources Projects-Improvements Still Needed (washington, D.C.: August 7, 1978). The responding bureaus found some factural errors in the report. [BACK] 8. General Accounting Office "Millions of Acre-Feet of Underutilized Water in Federal Reservoirs Make Cost Reimbursement Difficult," CED-81-77, Changes in Federal Waer Project Repayment Policies Can Reduce Federal Costs (Washington, D.C.: August 7, 1981), pp. 7-29. The Bureau of Reclamation indicates the extent of underutilization is overstated, given project requirements. [BACK] 9. This conversion represents a consensus of many writers in the field. See as an example, K.D. Frederick with J.C. Hanson, "Western Irrigation: Its Past and Future Growth," in Trends in U.S. Irrigation: Three Regional Studies (Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future, 1981). [BACK] 10. President Carter's Message to Congress on Water Policy, June 6, 1978. [BACK] 11. R.R. Rucker and P.V. Fishback, supra, note 6. [BACK] 11. R.R. Rucker and P.V. Fishback, supra, note 6. [BACK] 12. M. Gisser and R. Johnson, "Institutional Restrictions on the Transfer of Water Rights and the Survival of an Agency," in T. Anderson (ed.), supra, note 6, and Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District v. Cox, N.M., 13th JDC, Case no. 7147, filed August 4, 1977. [BACK] 13. L.M. Hartman and D. Seaston, Water Transfers: Economic Effieicnecy and Alternative Institutions (Baltimore: Johns Hopkns University Press for Resources for the Future, 1970). [BACK] 14. T. Tregarthen in T. Anderson (ed.), "Water in Colorado: Fear and Loathing of the Market Place," supra, note 6. break [BACK] 15. W. Coldiron, "Non Reserved Water Rights-United States Compliance with State Law," Solicitor's Opinion, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, September 11, 1981. [BACK] 16. The State of Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska vs. Andrews et al., U.S. D.C. for the District of Nebraska, Case no. CU 82L-442, filed August 18, 1982. [BACK] 17. Assembly Office of Water Research, A Marketing Approach to Water Allocation, P. Schifferle, Project Manager (Sacramento, CA: February, 1982). [BACK] 18. See note 2, supra. [BACK] 19. See Sporhase v. State of Nebraska, Number 81-613, U.S. Supreme Court, July 2, 1982. [BACK] 20. See P.J. Ognibene, "Selling Water Users in the West on Sharing Reclamation Project Costs," National Journal, August 14, 1982, pp. 1421-1425. [BACK] 1. I am indebted to W.D. Farr of Greeley, Colorado, (contributor to this volume), who pointed out to me several years ago the fundamental significance of this proposal for change in state water rights law. [BACK] 2. See "Let's Dismantle (Largely but Not Fully) the Federal Water Development Establishment, or the Apostasy of a Longstanding Water Development Federalist," in the Proceedings of the National Conference on Water, Washington, D.C., April 1975, sponsored by the U.S. Water Resources Council (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1976, Stock Number 024-011-02798-4), pp. 180-194. Reprinted in Denver Journal of International Law of Policy, University of Denver, College of Law, Volume 6, Special Issue 1976, pp. 395-402. [BACK] 3. This discussion of block grants only relates to intrastate water projects. The interstate responsibilities of the federal government for the nation's 25,000 mile inland navigation system, flood control relative to the Lower Mississippi River, and other major potential interstate developments, need to be separately addressed. [BACK] |